'V...  - 


V 


EIGHTH  SPECIAL  REPORT 

OF  THE 

COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


THE 


PREPARED  UNDER  TIIE  DIRECTION  OF 

CARROLL  33 .  WRIGHT, 

COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR, 

BY 

h  E.  R.  L.  GOULD,  Ph.  D. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1895. 


CONTENTS 


Pag*. 

Message  op  the  President . „ .  11 

Letter  op  Transmittal . * .  13,14 

Chapter  I. — Scope  and  character  op  the  present  inquiry .  15-19 

Chapter  II.— Sanitary  laws .  21-52 

New  York  city .  24-37 

Laws  relating  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses  in  New  York  city.. .  27-34 

Complaints  and  recommendations .  34-37 

England .  37-47 

The  public  health  (London)  act  of  1891 .  40-47 

France .  48-51 

Belgium . 51,  52 

Brussels .  52 

Germany .  52 

Chapter  III. — Expropriation  for  sanitary  purposes .  53-68 

Great  Britain . . : .  55-67 

Housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890  .  56-62 

Objections  to  expropriation .  62,63 

Some  results  of  expropriation .  64-67 

Edinburgh .  64 

Dundee .  64,  65 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne .  65 

Liverpool .  65 

Birmingham .  65,  66 

Glasgow . .  66, 67 

Belgium .  67, 68 

France . .  68 

Chapter  IV. — Some  results  op  sanitary  reform .  69-79 

Chapter  V. — Sanitary  aid  societies  and  their  work .  81-89 

Chapter  VI. — Building  regulations .  91-130 

Importance  of  regulations .  93-95 

London,  England .  96-100 

Manchester,  England .  100-107 

Paris,  France .  107, 108 

Brussels,  Belgium .  108 

Berlin,  Germany .  109-116 

New  York  city .  117-130 

Tenement  houses . .• . . . 128-130 

Chapter  VIL — Intervention  of  public  bodies .  131-157 

Belgium .  133-152 

By-laws  of  a  joint  stock  loan  company  formed  under  the  Belgian 

law  of  1889  .  137-149 

Text  of  the  Belgian  law  of  August  9,  1889...... .  149-152 

3 


4  -  CONTENTS. 

Chapter  VII. — Intervention  of  public  bodies— Concluded.  Pag®. 

France . . . . . . . .  152-155 

Law  of  November  30,  1894,  relating  to  cheap  dwellings .  153-155 

Austria .  155, 156 

Great  Britain .  156, 157 

Chapter  VIII.— Rent  collecting  and  other  agencies  for  improving 

THE  HOUSING  OF  THE  POOR .  159-168 

Chapter  IX. — Model  block  buildings .  169-317 

Model  housing  in  general . . . . .  171-176 

United  States . 177-214 

Improved  Dwellings  Company,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  177-186 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  186-190 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city _ • . 190-196 

Tenement  House  Building  Company,  New  York  city .  196-200 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  200-207 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  207-211 

Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  211-214 

Great  Britain . . . 214-274 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London .  214-222 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London .  222-226 

Metropolitan  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Indus¬ 
trious  Classes,  London .  226-228 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London .  228,229 

East  End  Dwellings  Company,  London .  229,  230 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  London .  230, 231 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London .  231-238 

Guinness  Trust,  London .  239-246 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool .  246-256 

Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester .  257-260 

Improved  Industrial  Company,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne .  260 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow . 260-268 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow .  268-271 

Rosemount  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  for  Working  People, 

Edinburgh .  271,272 

Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor, 

Edinburgh . 272-274 

Well  Court  Model  Tenements,  Edinburgh .  274 

France .  274-283 

The  Familistfere,  Guise . fi .  274, 275 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris .  276, 277 

Healthy  Dwellings  Company,  Marseilles .  277-279 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen .  279-281 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Lyons .  281-283 

Germany .  283-313 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main .  283-288 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin .  288-290 

Society  for  the  Improvement  of  Tenements,  Berlin .  291 

Proposed  tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach,  Berlin .  292 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic .  292-295 

Goldnen  Hohe,  Leipsic . .  295, 296 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz .  296-299 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden .  299-303 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden .  303-306 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover . 306-309 

Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale...... . . 309-313 


CONTENTS. 


5 


Chapter  IX.— Model  block  buildings— Concluded.  Page. 

Holland .  313, 314 

Society  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes,  Amster¬ 
dam  .  813 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Laborers’  Dwellings,  Amster¬ 
dam  .  313, 314 

Sweden .  314-317 

Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm . : .  314 

Stockholm  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Stockholm .  314,315 

State  Railway,  Gothenburg .  315 

Robert  Dickson  Fund,  Gothenburg .  315-317 

Chapter  X. — Model  small  houses . 319-398 

United  States .  321-336 

S.  D.  Warren  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine .  321-324 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts .  325-327 

Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut .  327,  328 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois .  328-333 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts .  333-335 

Robert  Treat  Paine,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  336 

Great  Britain .  336-343 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England .  336-339 

Lever  Brothers,  Birkenhead,  England .  339 

James  Smieton  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland .  340-342 

Pilrig  Model  Dwellings,  Edinburgh,  Scotland .  342,  343 

France . . .  343-361 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy-Auteuil,  Paris .  343,344 

Discount  Bank  of  Paris,  Paris .  345 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Havre .  345,346 

The  Cottage,  Lyons .  346-348 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen .  348-350 

Solvay  and  Company,  Varang6ville-Dombasle .  350,  351 

M.  Menier,  Noisiel . 351-353 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort .  353-355 

Saint-Gobain  Manufacturing  Company,  Saint-Gobain .  355,  356 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin .  356,  357 

Blanzy  Mining  Company,  Blanzy .  357,358 

Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens .  358,  359 

Paris,  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  Laroche .  359 

Northern  Railway,  Bourget .  359,  360 

M.  Schneider,  Le  Creuzot .  360 

D.  Walter-Seitz,  Granges .  360 

Lille  Real  Estate  Company,  Lille .  360 

M.  Fanien,  Lillers .  361 

Belgium . . 361-371 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp .  361-364 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre .  364,365 

Vieille-Montagne  Company,  Ch6n6e .  366 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinelle  and  Couillet. ..  366-368 

Mariemont  Mining  Company,  Mariemont  and  Bascoup .  368,  369 

Brussels  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Brussels .  369 

Verviers  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Verviers .  370 

Cit6  Hoyaux,  Mons . 370 

Grand-Hornu  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company,  Mons .  370 

Bois-du-Luc  Mining  Company,  Bois  du-Luc .  371 

Germany .  371-393 

Berlin  Building  Association,  Berlin .  371-374 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  X.— Model  small  houses-— Concluded.  "Pis*. 

Germany — Concluded. 

Barmen  Workingmenr8  Dwellings  Company,  Barmen .  374,875 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen-Gladbaoh . . .  875-377 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta .  877, 378 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort .  879, 380 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss . . .  381 

Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Mulhouse . .  382-384 

Friedrich  Krupp,  Essen . 384-387 

D.  Peters  and  Company,  Neviges . .  387-389 

Villeroy  and  Boch,  Mettlach .  389-391 

North  German  Jute  Spinning  and  Weaving  Factory,  Schiffbek,  near 

Hamburg . 391 

German  People’s  Building  Company,  Berlin . . .  391,392 

Royal  Prussian  State  Railway,  Leinhausen,  Hanover . .  892 

Prussian  State  Coal  Mines,  Saarbriicken . .  392,393 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg .  393 

Gerhard  vom  Rath  Fund,  Cologne . 393 

Denmark . 394-396 

Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Copenhagen .  394-396 

Medical  Association  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen .  396 

Holland .  396,  397 

Van  Marken  Model  Dwellings,  Delft .  396, 397 

Sweden .  397,398 

Gothenburg  Savings  Bank,  Gothenburg . 397 

Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Gothenburg . 397 

Gothenburg  Company  for  the  Housing  of  Working  People,  Gothen¬ 
burg . 398 

D.  Carnegie  and  Company,  Gothenburg .  398 

Chapter  XI.— Model  lodging  houses.. .j .  399-416 

B  altimore,  M  ary  land.... . . .  401, 402 

English  legislation . 402-404 

Municipal  lodging  houses,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 404-407 

Burns’  homes,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  407-412 

Edinburgh,  Scotland .  412 

London  county  council  lodging  house,  London,  England . 412-414 

Rowton  House,  London,  England .  414, 415 

Huddersfield,  England .  415 

Liverpool,  England .  415,416 

Chapter  XII. — Economic  and  ethical  aspects .  417-436 

Chatter  XIII. — Conclusions .  437-443 


LIST  OF  PLANS, 


Plan  N*.  Para. 

1.  Proposed  plan  for  remodeling  back-to-back  houses,  Manchester,  England.  95 

2.  Proposed  plan  of  regulating  the  open  spaces  in  the  rear  of  dwelling  houses 

in  London,  England .  97 

3.  London  County  Council  Artisans’  Dwellings,  London,  England — Self- 

contained  tenements .  97 

4.  London  County  Council  Artisans’  Dwellings,  London,  England — Asso¬ 

ciated  tenements .  97 

5.  Tenement  house  of  1863,  for  twelve  families  on  each  floor,  New  York  city.  128 

6.  Tenement  house  prior  to  1879,  New  York  city .  128 

7.  Group  of  the  earliest  tenement  house  plans  approved  by  the  hoard  of 

health  under  the  law  of  1879,  New  York  city .  128 

8.  First  prize  plan  of  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of  1879,  Nflw 

York  city .  128 

9.  Prize  plan  of  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of  1879,  New  York 

city .  128 

10.  Prize  plan  of  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of  1879,  New  York 

city .  129 

11.  Prize  plan  of  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of  1879,  New  York 

city .  129 

12.  Prize  plan  of  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of  1879,  New  York 

city .  129 

13A.  Riverside  Buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York — Elevation .  179 

13B.  Riverside  Buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York — Upper  floors .  179 

13C.  Riverside  Buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York — First  floor,  Columbia  place  ..  179 

13D.  Riverside  Buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York — First  floor,  Joralemon  street.  179 

13E.  Riverside  Buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York — First  floor,  Furuiau  street  .. .  179 

14A.  Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York — Elevation .  188 

14B.  Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York — Second  floor .  188 

15A.  Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city — Elevation .  192 

15B.  Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city — Floor  plans .  192 

16.  Tenement  House  Building  Company,  New  York  city — Front  elevation 

and  first  floor .  197 

17A.  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts — Harrison 

avenue  estate — General  plan  aud  basement .  202 

17B.  Boston  Cooperative  BuildingCompany,  Boston,  Massachusetts — Harrison 

avenue  estate — First,  second,  and  third  floors .  202 

18.  Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  Building,  Boston,  Massachusetts — Floor  plans .  208 

19A.  Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts — General  plan  aud  eleva¬ 
tion  .  213 

19B.  Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts — Floor  plans .  213 

19C.  Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts — Floor  plans,  rear  block  ..  213 

20.  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — Part  of 

Marlborough  Buildings — First  floor .  218 


7 


8 


LIST  OF  PLANS. 


Pag*. 

21A.  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — Soho 

estate — General  .plan . .  216 

21B.  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — Soho 

estate — Two-room  dwellings .  216 

21C.  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — Soho 

estate — Three-room  dwellings .  216 

22.  Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  Eng¬ 

land — Hornsey  estate — Fifth-class  houses .  223 

23.  Artisans',  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  Eng¬ 

land — Hornsey  estate — Third-class  houses .  223 

24.  Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  Eng¬ 

land — Hornsey  estate — Second-class  houses .  223 

25.  Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  Eng¬ 

land — Hornsey  estate — First-class  houses .  223 

26.  Arrangement  of  stairway  and  rooms  in  a  block  of  the  Artisans’,  Labor¬ 

ers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  225 

27A.  Gatliff  Buildings,  London,  Eugland — External  front  on  Gatliff  road....  227 
27B.  Gatliff  Buildings,  Loudon,  England — Floor  plan .  227 

28.  Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — 

Brady  street  dwellings .  228 

29.  Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England — Club 

and  Library  of  Brady  street  dwellings .  228 

30A.  Peabody  Trust,  London,  England — Pimlico  Buildings — Ground  floor .  237 

30B.  Peabody  Trust,  London,  England — Pimlico  Buildings — Fourth  floor .  237 

30C.  Peabody  Trust,  London,  England — Pimlico  Buildings — Drainage  system  .  237 
31A.  Victoria  Square  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Liverpool,  England — Street  view  ..  246 

31B.  Victoria  Square  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Liverpool,  England — Quadrangle 

view .  246 

31C.  Victoria  Square  Artisans’  Dwellings  and  Juvenal  Buildings,  Liverpool, 

England — Plan  of  site .  246 

32.  Proposed  plan  for  model  tenements,  Liverpool,  England .  256 

33.  Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester,  England — Floor 

plan .  257 

34A.  Cathedral  Court,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Elevation .  262 

34B.  Cathedral  Court,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Ground  floor .  262 

35A.  Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Front  elevation .  268 

35B.  Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Floor  plans .  268 

36A.  Rosemount  Buildings,  Edinburgh,  Scotland — Elevation .  272 

36B.  Rosemount  Buildings,  Edinburgh,  Scotland — General  plan .  272 

37A.  Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Scotland — Front  elevation .  273 

37B.  Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edin 

burgh,  Scotland — Elevation  of  back  building  and  section  of  front .  273 

37C.  Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Scotland — Floor  plan .  273 

38A.  The  Familistbre,  Guise,  France — General  view .  274 

38B.  The  Familist&re,  Guise,  France — Ground  floor .  274 

39A.  Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France — Front  elevation .  277 

39B.  Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France — Ground  floor .  277 

39C.  Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France — Upper  floors .  277 

40A.  Group  Alsace-Lorraine,  Rouen,  France — Front  view  and  corner  of  interior 

court .  280 

40B.  Group  Alsace-Lorraine,  Rouen,  France — Second  floor .  280 

41A.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany— Two- 

room  dwellings,  front  elevation . 287 


LIST  OF  PLANS. 


9 


Papa 

41B.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany — Two- 

room  dwellings,  rear  elevation .  287 

41C.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany — Two- 

room  dwellings,  ground  floor .  287 

42A.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany — Three- 

room  dwellings,  front  elevation .  287 

42B.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany — Three- 

rooiu  dwellings,  rear  elevation .  287 

42C.  Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany — Three- 

room  dwellings,  ground  floor .  287 

43A.  Proposed  tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach,  Berlin,  Germany — Front  ele 

vation .  292 

43B.  Proposed  tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach,  Berlin,  Germany — General 

ground  plan .  292 

44A.  Meyer’s  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany — General  plan .  292 

44B.  Meyer’s  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany — Front  elevation  .......  293 

44C.  Meyer’s  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany — Floor  plan .  293 

45.  Golduen  Hoke,  Leipsic,  Germany — General  plan  and  upper  floors .  295 

46A.  Salomon  Fund  Buildiugs,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany — General  plan  ....  297 

46B  Salomon  Fund  Buildiugs,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany — Elevation .  297 

47A.  Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany — Front  elevation  .  3(0 

47B.  Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany — Ground  floor _  300 

47C.  Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany — Upper  floors .  300 

48.  Saint  .John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany — Front  elevation  and  ground 

floor  . 304 

49.  Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany — Front  elevation,  and 

ground  and  upper  floors .  307 

50A.  Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany — General  plan .  310 

50B.  Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany — Front  elevation  and  gardens.  310 

50C.  Loest's  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany — Cellar,  ground,  and  upper 

floors .  310 

51A.  Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden — Front  elevation  and 

cellar .  314 

51B.  Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden — Ground  floor  and 

attic . 314 

52.  Stockholm  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden — Floor 

plan  .  314 

53A.  S.  D.  Warren  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine — Front  and  side 

elevations .  322 

53B.  S.  D.  Warren  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine — Floor  plans .  322 

54.  Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts — Elevation  and 

floor  plans .  325 

55A.  Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut — Side  elevation..  327 

55B.  Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut — Floor  plans _  327 

55C.  Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut — View  of  four 

types  of  houses .  327 

56A.  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts — Front  ele¬ 
vation .  334 

56B.  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts — First  floor..  334 

57A  Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England — Block  plan .  336 

57B.  Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England — Front  elevation 

and  floor  plans .  337 

58.  Janies  Smieton  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland — Floor  plan .  340 

69.  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy-Auteuil,  Paris,  France — Ele¬ 
vation,  section,  ground  floor,  and  cellar .  343 


10 


LIST  OF  PLANS, 


Page- 

60.  Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France — General  plan,  eleva¬ 

tion,  section,  and  floor  plans .  348 

61.  Solvay  and  Company,  V arang6  ville-Dombasle,  France — Front  elevation 

and  floor  plans  . .  350 

62A.  M.  Menier,  Noisiel,  France — Plan  of  houses  and  gardens .  352 

62B.  M.  Menier,  Noisiel,  France — Front  and  side  elevation .  352 

62C.  M.  Menier,  Noisiel,  France — Floor  plans .  352 

63.  Saint-Gobain  Manufacturing  Company,  Saint-Gobain,  France — Front  ele¬ 
vation  and  floor  plans .  355 

64A.  Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  France — Front  and  rear  elevation ... .  356 

64B.  Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  France — Ground  floor . 356 

65A.  Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France — General  plan  of  Saint  Edouard — 

Group  No.  12 .  359 

65B.  Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France — Front  elevation  and  ground 

floor — Group  No.  12 .  359 

65C.  Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France — Side  elevation  and  attic — Group 

No.  12 .  359 

66.  Paris,  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  Laroche,  France — 

Floor  plans .  359 

67.  Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium — House  for  two  families _  362 

68A.  Mariemont  Mining  Company,  Mariemont,  Belgium — Groups  of  houses 

and  front  elevation . 369 

68B.  Mariemont  Mining  Company,  Mariemont,  Belgium — Floor  plans .  369 

69.  Cit6  Hoyaux,  Mons,  Belgium — Front  elevation  and  floor  plans .  370 

70A.  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen-Gladbach,  Germany — General 

plan .  375 

70B.  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen-Gladbach,  Germany — Front 

elevation,  and  ground  and  second  floors .  375 

71A.  Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany — General 

plan .  379 

71B.  Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany — Front 

elevation,  ground  and  second  floors .  379 

72.  Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Mulhouse,  Germany — Ele¬ 

vation,  block  plan,  and  first  and  second  floors — Type  1 .  384 

73.  Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Mulhouse,  Germany — Front 

and  side  elevation,  section  and  ground  floor — Type  2 .  384 

74.  Friedrich  Krupp,  Essen,  Germany — Group  “Drei  Linden” — Front  elova- 

tion,  general  plan,  section,  and  ground  and  second  floors .  386 

75.  D.  Peters  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany — Elevation  and  floor  plans..  387 

76.  Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Copenhagen,  Denmark — Elevation  and 

floor  plans .  394 

77A.  Medical  Association  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen,  Denmark — General  plan.  396 
77B.  Medical  Association  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen,  Denmark — Floor  plans...  396 
78A.  Clyde  Street  Municipal  Lodging  House,  Glasgow,  Scotland— Elevation..  405 
78B.  Clyde  Street  Municipal  Lodging  House,  Glasgow,  Scotland— Transverse 

section . 405 

78C.  Clyde  Street  Municipal  Lodging  House,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Dormitories, 

first  floor . 405 

78D.  Clyde  Street  Municipal  Lodging  House,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Dormitories, 

second  and  third  floors .  405 

79A.  London  County  Council,  London,  England — Municipal  Lodging  House 

for  Men — Elevation  and  sectional  plans .  413 

79B.  London  County  Council,  London,  England — Municipal  Lodging  House 

for  Men — Sectional  and  floor  plans .  413 


MESSAGE  OF  THE  PRESIDENT. 


To  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives: 

I  transmit  herewith  the  Eighth  Special  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  which  relates  to  the  housing  of  the  working  people  in 
different  countries. 

Grover  Cleveland. 

’ 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  D.  0 .,  February  14,  1895. 


11 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  Labor, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  February  14,  1895. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  the  Eighth  Special 
Report  emanating  from  this  Department.  This  report  deals  with  the 
housing  of  the  working  people  in  different  countries,  and  is  the 
result  of  an  original  investigation  carried  on  under  my  direction  by 
Dr.  E.  R.  L.  Gould,  formerly  one  of  the  statistical  experts  of  this 
Department.  The  compilation  of  the  data  and  the  analysis  thereof 
have  been  furnished  by  him. 

A  careful  examination  of  the  report  leads  me  to  express  the  opin¬ 
ion  that  it  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  one,  and  one  which,  under 
the  present  condition  of  affairs,  will  stimulate  undertakings  in  the 
direction  of  improving  the  dwellings  of  the  people.  All  such 
efforts  partake  of  ethical  and  economic  considerations,  and  when  it 
is  shown  that  the  economic  side  is  fully  warranted  by  the  experi¬ 
ments  which  have  been  conducted  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
it  is  believed  that  the  ethical  results  will  induce  others  to  make 
efforts  to  secure  the  very  best  quality  of  housing.  As  the  labor 
question  concretely  is  simply  a  struggle  for  better  conditions,  every 
undertaking  to  secure  such  conditions  should  meet  with  encourage¬ 
ment,  and  as  the  organic  law  of  this  Department  calls  upon  it  to 
acquire  and  diffuse  among  the  people  of  the  United  States  useful 
information  concerning  the  means  of  promoting  their  material,  social, 
intellectual,  and  moral  prosperity,  it  is  deemed  particularly  appro¬ 
priate  to  publish  the  facts  contained  in  this  special  report  on  so 
important  a  matter  as  the  housing  of  the  working  people. 

I  join  most  cordially  in  Dr.  Gould’s  desire  to  express  his  sense  of 
obligation  to  those  persons  in  Europe  and  in  this  country  who  have 
courteously  aided  the  Department  in  securing  information,  and  who 

have  given  it  the  benefit  of  administrative  and  business  experience 

13 


14 


LETTER  OP  TRANSMITTAL. 


in  dealing  with  the  housing  problem.  These  individuals  are  so 
numerous  that  personal  mention  is  impossible,  but  it  is  hoped  they 
will  fully  understand  that  acknowledgment  is  none  the  less  sincere. 
Particular  mention,  however,  should  be  made  of  the  efficient  assist¬ 
ance  rendered  Dr.  Gould  by  Mr.  G.  A.  Weber,  one  of  the  special 
agents  of  the  Department,  and  of  the  services  of  Mr.  Charles  H. 
Yerrill,  and  of  Mr.  Oren  W.  Weaver,  the  chief  clerk  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment. 

I  am,  very  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

Carroll  D.  Wright, 

Commissioner , 


The  President, 


CHAPTER  I. 

SCOPE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRESENT  INQUIRY. 


15 


CHAPTER  I. 

SCOPE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  PRESENT  INQUIRY. 

Tlie  appointment  of  the  first  tenement  house  commission  in  New  York, 
in  the  winter  of  1856-57,  which  was  followed  by  the  creation  of  the 
metropolitan  board  of  health  in  1866,  marks  the  beginning  of  serious 
interest  in  the  housing  of  city  wage  earners  in  this  country.  The  naming 
of  three  subsequent  commissions — one  in  18S4,  one  in  1887,  and  the 
other  just  completing  its  functions — while  indicating  that  the  problem 
has  not  been  solved,  shows  conclusively  that  interest  is  by  no  means  on 
the  wane.  The  Massachusetts  bureau  of  statistics  of  labor  has  recently 
completed  an  exhaustive  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  tenement  houses 
in  the  city  of  Boston.  By  direction  of  Congress  the  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Labor  has  carried  out  an  investigation  of  the  slums  of 
large  representative  American  cities,  and  his  Ninth  Annual  Report  is  a 
comprehensive  exposition  of  the  work  and  status  of  building  and  loan 
associations  in  this  country.  England,  by  a  succession  of  general  and 
local  enactments  from  1851  to  1891,  has  remodeled  her  sanitary  law  and 
otherwise  legally  encouraged  better  housing  for  the  people.  Belgium, 
in  1889,  enacted  a  measure  which  organizes  public  spirited  and  well 
intentioned  effort  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  by  means  of  committees 
of  patronage,  by  permitting  the  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Caisse  Ge¬ 
nerate  d’Epargne  et  de  Retraite)  to  loan  money  at  a  low  rate  of  interest 
to  local  loan  and  building  companies  who  aim  to  make  the  workingman 
the  proprietor  of  his  home,  and  by  incorporating  with  this  loan  the  life 
insurance  feature,  so  that  if  the  death  of  the  father  takes  place  before 
the  property  has  been  entirely  paid  for  his  family  maybe  secured  in  the 
possession  of  their  home.  This  law,  which  is  presented  in  full  in  Chap¬ 
ter  VII,  will  repay  the  most  careful  study.  A  measure,  similar  in  salient 
respects,  became  a  law  in  France  on  November  30,  1894,  and  many  of 
the  main  features  have  been  suggested  for  imitation  in  Germany.  The 
chief  merit  claimed  for  the  Belgian  law  is  that  it  presents  a  practicable 
scheme  for  bringing  about  popular  proprietorship  of  homes  at  a  cost 
but  little,  if  any,  in  excess  of  the  ordinary  price  charged  for  rent.  The 
reorganized  Central  Institute  for  Promoting  the  Welfare  of  Working 
People  (Central- Stelle fur  Arbeiter  Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen)  in  Germany 
took  up  as  its  first  task  an  investigation  of  model  housing  enterprises 
in  that  country,  and  the  imperial  insurance  bureau  has  set  aside  a 

17 


H.  Ex.  354 - 2 


18  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

portion  of  the  insurance  fund  against  sickness  and  invalidity  to  loan 
to  responsible  agencies  engaged  in  the  housing  of  working  people. 
These  instances  are  sufficient,  without  enumerating  the  great  variety 
of  local  and  more  restricted  efforts,  to  show  the  widespread  interest 
which  this  vitally  important  problem  has  awakened. 

Cities  are  the  rallying  grounds  of  the  masses,  and  it  is  important  to 
understand  what  municipal  authorities  are  doing  to  counteract  the 
effects  of  overcrowding  and  bad  sanitation.  Chapter  II,  while  disclos¬ 
ing  general  sanitary  organization  in  England,  France,  Belgium,  and 
Germany,  gives  special  attention  to  the  local  regulations*of  metropol¬ 
itan  centers  within  these  countries  and  the  United  States.  A  compara¬ 
tive  method  of  social  study  is  the  only  really  valuable  one,  and  the 
disclosure  of  what  is  being  done  in  one  center  is  a  positive  advantage 
to  all  the  others.  Local  conditions,  of  course,  may  vary,  but  the  effi¬ 
ciency  of  general  lines  of  policy  is  the  point  to  gauge.  Chapter  III 
deals  with  expropriations  for  purposes  of  public  health  in  their  legal 
aspect  and  financial  and  sanitary  results.  The  facts  cited  are  useful 
both  for  precept  and  for  warning.  Chapter  IY  treats  of  certain  results 
of  sanitary  reform  in  a  few  metropolitan  centers  at  home  and  abroad. 
Chapter  Y  deals  with  sanitary  aid  societies  aijd  their  work.  Chapter 
YI  sets  forth  the  building  regulations  of  representative  cities  in  differ¬ 
ent  countries  with  the  aim  of  showing  what  provision  is  made  for 
guarding  against  the  perpetuation  of  structurally  defective  habitations. 
Chapter  YII  treats  of  public  intervention  in  the  housing  of  working  peo¬ 
ple,  giving  the  most  notable  laws  which  have  been  passed  and  furnish¬ 
ing  data  showing  the  encouragement  accorded  by  municipalities,  savings 
banks,  etc.  Chapter  YIII  presents  information  in  relation  to  rent 
collecting  and  other  agencies  for  improving  the  living  environment  of 
working  people.  Chapters  IX,  X,  and  XI  deal  with  model  housing, 
and  treat  respectively  of  block  buildings,  small  houses,  and  lodging 
houses.  These  three  chapters  constitute  the  major  part  of  the  present 
volume.  The  prominence  given  them  is  justified,  because  it  is  impor¬ 
tant  to  know  whether  model  effort  has  accomplished  or  can  accomplish 
useful  work.  Hence  a  history  of  the  operation  and  financial  results 
attending  the  activities  of  model  enterprises  has  received  conspicuous 
attention.  There  exists  an  undoubted  sphere  of  effort  for  them  in  all 
communities,  and  for  this  reason  great  pains  have  been  taken  to  present 
all  the  facts  (even  to  technical  details),  with  plans  of  various  types  of 
buildings,  so  that  any  community,  corporation,  or  individual  contem¬ 
plating  action  may  find  in  these  pages  a  choice  of  that  particular  form 
of  enterprise  which  will  best  suit  local  conditions.  It  is  not  pretended 
that  a  complete  census  of  model  enterprises  has  been  made,  but  it  is 
believed  that  almost  all  of  importance  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Bel¬ 
gium,  Germany,  the  Scandinavian  countries,  and  the  United  States 
have  received  mention.  It  may  be  a  revelation  to  some  to  know  that 
so  many  exist.  The  general  lesson  gleaned  from  a  study  of  the  facts 


CHAPTER  L - SCOPE  AND  CHARACTER. 


19 


in  these  three  chapters  is  encouraging.  It  shows  that  proper  housing 
of  the  great  masses  of  working  people  can  be  furnished  on  a  satisfac¬ 
tory  commercial  basis. 

Appeal  to  European  experience  is  quite  justifiable.  There  has  been 
much  more  comprehensive  work  done  abroad  than  here.  There  are,  of 
course,  differences  in  habits  and  customs  among  reside  jts  of  the  several 
countries,  but  it  is  in  the  city  as  such  where  the  problem  presses  most. 
In  large  aggregations  of  population,  no  matter  of  what  nationality, 
practically  similar  phases  present  themselves.  Particularly  does  any 
experience  in  housing  the  very  poor  and  the  submerged  become  of 
great  value. 

Building  associations  have  only  occasionally  been  mentioned  in  the 
following  pages.  Wherever  a  few  of  them  have  been  found  conducting 
model  housing  operations  a  notice  appears  in  one  of  the  two  chapters 
dealing  with  this  subject.  The  comprehensive  report  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  upon  building  and  loan  associations  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  fact  that  these  institutions  loan  money, 
leaving  to  the  individual  his  own  choice  in  the  construction  of  his  home 
without  reference  to  models  or  types,  makes  superfluous  any  further 
treatment  than  has  been  accorded. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  in  presenting  the  facts  for  specific  model 
enterprises  a  statement  of  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs 
has  been  omitted.  These  facts  would  have  been  of  no  little  interest  and 
they  were  not  overlooked,  but  it  was  found  that  there  was  no  uniform 
interpretation  as  to  what  should  be  included  under  maintenance,  and 
hence  any  figures  presented  would  have  been  misleading.  It  was 
thought  better,  therefore,  to  omit  all  items  in  reference  to  such  outlay. 

Chapter  XII  is  entitled  44  Economic  and  ethical  aspects.”  The  cap¬ 
tion  may  suggest  more  than  perusal  of  the  text  will  justify.  Academic 
discussions  have  no  part  in  a  statistical  investigation  such  as  this; 
hence  only  the  economic  and  ethical  features  of  the  facts  revealed 
by  the  inquiry  have  received  treatment.  Chapter  XIII  summarizes 
briefly  some  of  the  more  important  conclusions. 

The  aim  of  this  report  is  to  communicate  information  which  will  be 
serviceable  to  all  persons  who  are  in  any  way  concerned  with  house 
sanitation,  to  architects,  builders,  philanthropists,  or  public  spirited 
citizens,  and  especially  to  all  who  may  desire  to  promote  the  growth 
of  model  housing  enterprises.  The  best  methods  of  rendering  dwell¬ 
ings  habitable,  of  eradicating  slums,  of  guaranteeing  the  sanitary 
character  of  new  buildings,  of  multiplying  model  dwellings,  and  of 
developing  popular  proprietorship  of  hoineS  are  presented,  not  in 
theory,  but  as  they  exist  in  fact. 


4T 


* 


■ 

■ 


. 


. 


• 

• 

' 

• 

. 

* 


. 


CHAPTER  II. 


SANITARY  LAWS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SANITARY  LAWS. 

Wisely  conceived  and  well  enforced  sanitary  laws  are  a  supreme 
necessity  of  modern  civilization.  The  let-alone  policy,  if  admitted, 
would  mean  that  urban  populations  would  periodically  suffer  from 
fearful  epidemics,  and  that  a  vast  number  would  fall  into  pauperism 
and  moral  degradation  under  the  irresistible  impulsion  of  unhealthy 
environments.  Legislatures  have  thus  seen  the  necessity  of  endowing 
metropolitan  centers  with  large  powers  for  their  self-protection.  In 
New  York  these  powers  are  especially  drastic.  Recently  a  better  code 
has  been  established  in  London,  but  most  of  the  continental  countries 
have  not  yet  fully  risen  to  the  occasion.  A  difficulty  in  many  cities 
both  here  and  abroad  is  that  sufficient  power  of  initiative  has  not  been 
given  to  the  sanitary  authorities.  Bothersome  enabling  acts  must 
frequently  be  secured  before  urgent  work  can  be  done.  Generally 
speaking,  urban  sanitary  law  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
is  fairly  complete,  but  almost  universal -complaint  is  heard  that  it  is 
not  fully  enforced.  Many  of  the  most  competent  witnesses  before  the 
English  royal  commission,  in  1885,  stated  that  further  regulations  were 
of  minor  importance  as  compared  with  the  necessity  of  enforcing  those 
already  in  existence.  Added  vigilance  and  increased  inspection  were 
enjoined  by  the  commissioners  in  their  report  as  a  means  of  improving 
the  house  accommodations  of  working  people. 

In  one  notable  way  sanitary  law  may  further  good  housing.  As 
stringency  increases  and  owners  are  compelled  to  keep  their  property 
in  good  repair  they  are  obliged  to  exercise  greater  care  in  the  selection 
of  tenants.  The  undesirable  classes  are  thus  likely  ultimately  to  find 
themselves  corralled  in  specific  neighborhoods.  They  can  then  be  the 
more  easily  looked  after. 

This  report  does  not  presume  to  outline  model  sanitary  law. 
Without  offering  any  direct  suggestions,  it  is  content  to  present  those 
regulations  which  are  enforced  in  England,  France,  Belgium,  and 
Germany.  It  seeks  to  describe  the  general  organization  and  to  give 
the  regulations  applicable  to  one  leading  city  in  each  of  these  countries 
and  in  the  United  States.  The  law  for  New  York  is  first  mentioned. 
It  is  probably  the  most  complete  and  efficient  of  existing  sanitary 
codes. 


23 


24  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOB. 

NEW  YOEK  CITY. 

The  head  of  the  New  York  health  department  is  the  board  of  health, 
which  consists  of  the  president  of  the  board  of  police,  the  health  officer 
of  the  port,  and  two  officers  to  be  called  commissioners  of  health,  one 
of  whom  must  have  been  a  practicing  physician  for  at  least  five  years 
preceding  his  appointment.  The  other  commissioner,  who  is  not  a 
physician,  shall  be  the  president  of  the  board.  Both  commissioners 
hold  office  for  six  years. 

The  department  of  health  is  divided  into  two  bureaus.  The  chief 
officer  of  one  bureau  is  called  the  sanitary  superintendent,  who  at  the 
time  of  his  appointment  must  have  been  for  ten  years  a  medical  prac¬ 
titioner  and  for  three  years  a  resident  of  the  city.  The  chief  officer  of 
the  second  bureau  is  called  the  register  of  records,  and  this  bureau 
deals  with  vital  and  other  statistics.  The  sanitary  superintendent 
enforces  the  provisions  of  the  sanitary  code  and  the  laws  and  the 
ordinances  relating  to  tenements  and  lodging  houses,  etc. 

The  board  of  health  has  executive,  judicial,  and  legislative  powers. 
It  establishes  its  own  sanitary  code,  which  is  supplementary  to  the  laws 
and  ordinances  relating  to  the  subject.  It  can  order  the  inspection  of 
any  premises  at  auy  time,  and  is  empowered  to  call  upon  the  police 
authorities  to  enforce  sanitary  laws  and  regulations.  Refusal  to  obey 
orders  or  to  conform  to  regulations  is  considered  a  misdemeanor,  and 
the  responsible  parties,  in  addition  to  being  subject  to  punishment 
therefor,  incur  a  penalty  of  $250,  to  be  sued  for  and  recovered  by  the 
board  in  any  civil  tribunal  in  the  city.  Whenever  a  minimum  penalty 
for  refusal  to  obey  or  for  a  violation  of  an  order,  regulation,  or  ordinance 
is  not  fixed,  the  amount  recovered  shall  not  be  less  than  $20,  the  exact 
sum  to  be  fixed  by  the  judge  presiding  at  the  trial. 

The  board  can  order  a  house  vacated  when  unfit  for  human  habita¬ 
tion  by  a  vote  of  three  out  of  the  four  members.  In  all  such  cases  in 
the  past  there  has  not  really  been  a  dissenting  voice.  An  order  to 
vacate  must  be  posted  conspicuously  in  the  interdicted  building  or  part 
thereof,  and  must  be  personally  served  on  the  owner,  lessee,  agent, 
occupant,  or  any  person  having  charge.  If  such  person  can  not  be 
found,  service  of  the  order  may  be  made  through  the  mail.  Orders  to 
vacate  are  by  no  means  infrequently  made.  Seventy-five  of  them  were 
issued  between  the  latter  part  of  May  and  the  middle  of  July,  1893. 
The  sanitary  superintendent  has  a  force  of  forty  inspectors  continuously 
at  his  service.  Twenty  of  them  are  physicians  and  the  remainder  are 
technicians  in  the  department  of  service  to  which  they  are  assigned. 

The  members  of  the  board  of  health,  the  sanitary  superintendent, 
or  any  of  his  subordinates,  may  enter  upon,  examine,  and  survey  all 
grounds,  buildings,  apartments,  etc.,  and  inspect  their  safety  and  sani¬ 
tary  condition,  making  plans,  drawings,  and  descriptions.  The  board 
may  publish  a  report  of  the  sanitary  condition  and  results  of  such 
inspections  in  so  far  as  it  considers  the  publications  to  be  useful. 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


25 


Until  June,  1891,  the  control  of  light  and  ventilation,  plumbing,  and 
drainage  of  all  new  buildings  belonged  to  the  sanitary  department  of 
the  board  of  health.  At  that  date,  however,  the  division  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  a  new  department  of  buildings.  The  powers  of  the  board, 
however,  still  extend  to  the  repairs  of  buildings,  houses,  and  other 
structures,  and  the  sanitation  of  new  buildings,  sewerage,  drainage, 
plumbing,  lighting,  and  ventilation  of  all  structures  after  they  have 
once  been  completed. 

The  law  requires  that  all  work  must  be  done  by  registered  plumbers; 
that  all  persons  pursuing  this  craft  must  register  under  such  rules  and 
regulations  as  the  board  of  health  may  prescribe.  It  is  unlawful  for 
any  other  than  a  registered  plumber  to  carry  on  the  plumbing  business 
in  the  city. 

It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  police  department  to  promptly  notify  the 
board  of  health  of  any  threatened  danger  to  human  life  and  regularly 
to  report  all  violations  of  health  laws  and  ordinances,  and  to  give  any 
useful  sanitary  information.  The  execution  of  orders  is  committed  to 
the  police  department,  and  at  such  times  police  officers  have  as  ample 
power  and  authority  as  when  obeying  any  prescription  of  the  board  of 
police  or  when  acting  under  the  warrant  of  a  judge.  They  are  respon¬ 
sible  for  their  conduct,  however,  to  the  board  of  police,  and  not  to  the 
board  of  health. 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  the  law  in  relation 
to  tenement  and  lodging  houses,  as  well  as  to  enforce  the  provisions  of 
the  sanitary  code,  forty  five  policemen,  who  are  men  of  experience  and 
who  have  had  at  least  live  years’  service,  are  detailed  for  work  under 
the  board  of  health.  Fifteen  of  these  are  occupied  exclusively  in  the 
enforcement  of  laws  relating  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses.  These 
officers  are  known  as  the  sanitary  company  of  police,  and  report  to  the 
president  of  the  board  of  health.  The  latter  body  pays  their  salaries 
and  reports  any  cases  for  discipline  back  to  the  police  department. 
Should  objections  be  made  on  the  ground  of  inefficiency,  another  detail 
must  be  made.  These  officers  take  pride,  as  a  usual  thing,  in  their 
work.  They  are  entitled  to  retire  after  twenty  years’  service,  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  they  rarely  do  so.  While  on  inspection  duty  each 
sanitary  policeman  carries  a  memorandum  book  in  which  he  notes  any 
cause  for  complaint.  The  following  is  a  list  of  subjects  upon  which  he 
has  to  report : 

Localion. — Number  of  families;  number  of  occupants;  privy  accommodations — 
number  of  sittings;  housekeeper  on  premises;  owner  on  premises. 

Cellars,  if  occupied  for  dwelling  purposes. — Whether  floor  is  water-tight;  whether 
the  ceiling  is  plastered. 

Yards. — Whether  properly  graded  ;  whether  sewer  connected. 

Front  areas. — Whether  graded;  whether  sewer  connected;  sanitary  condition. 

Waste  pipes. — Whether  joints  are  connected  with  cement  or  lead;  whether  trapped; 
whether  ventilated  2  feet  above  the  roof. 

Soil  pipes. — Whether  joints  are  connected  with  cement  or  lead;  whether  trapped. 


26  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OP  LABOR. 

General  inspection. — Cellars;  stairs  and  balusters  throughout  the  house;  ■walls  and 
ceilings  of  halls  and  rooms  throughout  the  house ;  floors  of  rooms  and  halls  through¬ 
out  the  house;  slop  sinks,  whether  trapped  and  ventilated ;  washbasins,  whether 
trapped  and  trap  ventilated ;  bath  tubs,  whether  trapped  and  trap  ventilated ;  Croton 
supply  pipes;  roof;  wash  roof;  skylights;  leaders;  eaves  gutters;  chimneys;  fire- 
escapes;  water-closets,  whether  trapped  and  trap  ventilated;  privy  vaults;  school 
sinks;  privy  houses;  cesspools;  urinals,  whether  properly  flushed;  clothes  poles; 
fences;  hydrants  in  yard;  airshafts. 

Ash  receptacles. — Whether  sufficient;  in  sanitary  condition;  whether  kept  within 
stoop  line. 

The  sanitary  policeman  rectifies  minor  nuisances,  but  those  which 
can  not  be  dealt  with,  either  because  of  the  unwillingness  of  the  respon¬ 
sible  party  to  make  the  necessary  ameliorations,  or  because  of  lack  of 
technical  knowledge,  are  reported  to  the  board  for  action.  If  the  case 
is  a  simple  one,  an  order  is  immediately  made,  but  where  technical  mat¬ 
ters  are  involved,  one  of  the  regular  sanitary  inspectors  is  detailed  for 
inquiry  and  report  before  final  disposition  is  made.  One  of  the  most 
important  duties  of  the  sanitary  police  is  to  make  night  inspections  of 
tenement  and  lodging  houses,  to  see  that  overcrowding  does  not  occur. 
The  inspection  of  tenement  houses,  obligatory  at  least  twice  each  year, 
is  made  by  the  sanitary  police  force. 

Citizens’  complaints  relating  to  tenement  houses  are  referred  to  either 
a  sanitary  police  officer  or  a  sanitary  inspector,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  complaint.  If,  upon  examination,  the  nuisance  is  found  to  re¬ 
quire  an  expert  examination,  reference  is  made  to  the  sanitary  inspector 
for  further  examination  and  report,  with  recommendations.  Where 
urgency  exists,  twenty-four  or  forty -eight  hours’  time  is  allowed  for 
compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  order.  Where  there  is  no  special 
need  for  haste,  five  days  is  the  ordinary  limit  allowed.  In  the  former 
case  the  sanitary  police  officer  is  sent  at  once  to  the  responsible  person 
to  give  information  of  the  terms  of  the  order  and  the  time  set  for  its 
execution.  At  the  end  of  the  allotted  period  he  visits  the  premises, 
and  if  the  nuisance  remains  unabated  or  the  work  has  not  been  com¬ 
menced  his  report  of  the  facts  to  the  board  involves  the  issuance  of  a 
new  order  of  arrest  for  noncompliance. 

Technical  sanitary  inspectors  are  required  to  have  a  thorough  knowl¬ 
edge  of  their  districts  and  to  make  a  general  inspection  of  them  from 
time  to  time  and  to  make  special  reports  upon  localities  which  may 
become  dangerous  to  life  and  health.  To  them  are  referred  citizens’ 
complaints  where  technical  knowledge  is  necessary. 

The  salary  list  of  the  board  of  health  in  1891  amounted  to  $222,984.22. 

The  special  laws  which  govern  tenement  and  lodging  houses  in  the 
city  of  ISTew  York  appear  below.  They  are  given  in  full  because  of 
their  importance  and  with  the  hope  that  they  maybe  useful  as  a  model 
for  other  cities  which  are  compelled  to  deal  with  the  tenement  house 
evil.  The  proportion  of  the  lot  that  may  be  covered  with  buildings,  the 
drainage  of  yards  and  areas,  plumbing,  water-closet  accommodation, 
disposal  of  garbage,  cleaning  of  yards,  requirements  as  to  ventilation, 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


27 


distances  between  front  and  rear  tenement,  open  spaces  at  tike  rear, 
cubic  air  space  assigned  to  individuals,  and  provision  of  janitor  are  all 
subjects  of  minute  prescription.  A  tenement  house  is  defined  to  be 
fl every  house  building  or  portion  thereof  which  is  rented,  leased,  let  or 
hired  out  to  be  occupied  or  is  occupied  as  the  home  or  residence  of  three 
families  or  more,  living  independently  of  each  other,  and  doing  their 
cooking  upon  the  premises,  or  by  more  than  two  families  upon  any  floor, 
so  living  and  cooking,  but  having  a  common  right  in  the  halls,  stair¬ 
ways,  yards,  water-closets  or  privies,  or  some  of  them.”  By  lodging 
house  is  meant  any  construction  where  persons  are  received  or  lodged 
upon  payment  of  a  sum  of  money  for  a  single  night  or  for  less  than  one 
week  at  a  time. 

LAWS  RELATING  TO  TENEMENT  AND  LODGING  HOUSES  IN 

NEW  YORK  CITY. 

LAWS  OF  1882. 

Section  649  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  No  house, 
building  or  portion  thereof,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  shall  be  used, 
occupied,  leased  or  rented  for  a  tenement  or  lodging  house  unless  the 
same  conforms  in  its  construction  and  appurtenances  to  the  require¬ 
ments  of  this  title;  and  if  occupied  by  more  than  one  family  on  a  floor, 
and  if  the  halls  do  not  open  directly  to  the  external  air,  with  suitable 
windows,  without  a  room  or  other  obstruction  at  the  end,  it  shall  not  be 
used,  occupied,  leased  or  rented,  unless  sufficient  light  and  ventilation 
is  otherwise  provided  for  in  said  halls. 

Sec.  650.  Every  house,  building,  or  portion  thereof,  in  the  city 
designed  to  be  used,  occupied,  leased,  or  rented,  or  which  is  used,  occu¬ 
pied,  leased,  or  rented  for  a  tenement  or  lodging  house,  shall  have  in 
every  room  which  is  occupied  as  a  sleeping  room,  and  which  does  not 
communicate  directly  with  the  external  air,  a  ventilating  or  transom  win¬ 
dow,  having  an  opening  or  area  of  three  square  feet  over  the  door  lead¬ 
ing  into  and  connected  with  the  adjoining  room,  if  such  adjoining  room 
communicates  with  the  external  air,  and  also  a  ventilating  or  transom 
window  of  the  same  opening  or  area,  communicating  with  the  entry  or 
hall  of  the  house,  or  where  this  is,  from  the  relative  situation  of  the 
rooms,  impracticable,  such  last-mentioned  ventilating  or  transom  win¬ 
dow  shall  communicate  with  an  adjoining  room  that  itself  communicates 
with  the  entry  or  hall.  Every  such  house  or  building  shall  have  in  the 
roof,  at  the  top  of  the  hall,  an  adequate  and  proper  ventilator,  of  a  form 
approved  by  the  inspector  of  buildings. 

Sec.  651.  Every  such  house  shall  be  provided  with  a  proper  fire- 
escape,  or  means  of  escape  in  case  of  fire,  to  be  approved  by  the  in¬ 
spector  of  buildings. 

Sec.  652.  The  roof  of  every  such  house  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair, 
and  so  as  not  to  leak,  and  all  rain  water  shall  be  so  drained  or  conveyed 
therefrom  as  to  prevent  its  dripping  on  to  the  ground,  or  causing  damp¬ 
ness  in  the  walls,  yard,  or  area.  All  stairs  shall  be  provided  with 
proper  banisters  and  railings,  and  shall  be  kept  in  good  repair. 

Sec.  653  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  Every  tene¬ 
ment  and  lodging  house  or  building  shall  be  provided  with  as  many 
good  and  sufficient  water-closets,  improved  privy  sinks  or  other  similar 
receptacles  as  the  board  of  health  shall  require,  but  in  no  case  shaJl 


28  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

there  be  less  than  one  for  every  fifteen  occupants  in  lodging  houses,  and 
not  less  than  one  for  every  two  families  in  dwelling  houses.  The  water- 
closets,  sinks  and  receptacles  shall  have  proper  doors,  soil  pipes  and 
traps,  all  of  which  shall  be  properly  ventilated  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  deleterious  gas  and  odors,  soil  pans,  cisterns,  pumps  and  other  suit¬ 
able  works  and  fixtures,  necessary  to  insure  the  efficient  operation, 
cleansing  and  flushing  thereof.  Every  tenement  and  lodging  house 
situated  upon  a  lot  on  a  street  or  avenue  in  which  there  is  a  sewer,  shall 
have  a  separate  and  proper  connection  with  the  sewer;  and  the  water- 
closets,  sinks  and  other  receptacles  shall  be  properly  connected  with 
the  sewer  by  proper  pipes  made  thoroughly  air-tight.  Such  sewer  con¬ 
nection  and  all  the  drainage  and  plumbing  work,  water-closets,  sinks  and 
other  receptacles,  in  and  for  every  tenement  and  lodging  house  shall 
be  of  the  form,  construction,  arrangement,  location,  materials,  work¬ 
manship  and  description  to  be  approved,  or  such  as  may  be  required 
by  the  board  of  health  of  the  health  department  of  the  city  of  New 
York.  Every  owner,  lessee  and  occupant  shall  take  adequate  measures 
to  prevent  improper  substances  from  entering  such  water-closets,  or 
sinks  or  their  connections,  and  to  secure  the  prompt  removal  of  any 
improper  substances  that  may  enter  them,  so  that  no  accumulation 
shall  take  place,  and  so  as  to  prevent  any  exhalations  therefrom,  offen¬ 
sive,  dangerous  and  prejudicial  to  life  or  health  and  so  as  to  prevent 
the  same  from  being  or  becoming  obstructed.  Every  person  who  shall 
place  filth,  urine  or  foecal  matter  in  any  place  in  a  tenement  house  other 
than  that  provided  for  the  same,  and  every  person  who  shall  keep  filth, 
urine  or  foecal  matter  in  his  apartment  or  upon  his  premises  such  leugth 
of  time  as  to  create  a  nuisance  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor;  no 
privy,  vault  or  cesspool  shall  be  allowed  in  or  under  or  connected  with 
any  such  house  except  when  it  is  unavoidable,  and  a  permit  therefor 
shall  have  been  granted  by  the  board  of  health,  and  in  such  case  it 
shall  be  constructed  in  such  situation  and  in  such  manner  as  the  board 
of  health  may  direct.  It  shall  in  all  cases  be  water-tight  and  arched 
or  securely  covered  over,  and  no  offensive  smell  or  gases  shall  be  allowed 
to  escape  therefrom,  or  from  any  closet,  sink  or  privy.  In  all  cases 
where  a  sewer  exists  in  the  street  or  avenue  upon  which  the  house  or 
building  stands,  the  yard  or  area  shall  be  connected  with  the  sewer, 
that  all  water  from  the  roof  or  otherwise,  and  all  liquid  filth  shall  pass 
freely  into  the  sewer.  Where  there  is  no  sewer  in  the  street  or  avenue, 
or  adjacent  thereto,  to  which  connection  can  be  made,  the  yard  and  area 
shall  be  so  graded  that  all  water  from  the  roof  or  otherwise,  and  all  filth 
shall  flow  freely  therefrom  into  the  street  gutter,  by  a  passage  beneath 
the  sidewalk,  which  passage  shall  be  covered  by  a  i)ermanent  cover, 
but  so  arranged  as  to  permit  access  to  remove  obstructions  or  impuri¬ 
ties.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  health  to  enforce  the  provi¬ 
sions  of  this  section  in  regard  to  privy  vaults  as  soon  as  practicable, 
but  said  board  shall  permit  no  privy  vault  to  remain  connected  with  a 
tenement  house  later  than  January  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  (a)  except  in  the  cases  especially  named  in  this  section. 

Sec.  654.  It  shall  not  be  lawful,  without  a  permit  from  the  board  of 
health,  to  let  or  occupy,  or  suffer  to  be  occupied  separately  as  a  dwelling, 
any  vault,  cellar,  or  underground  room  built  or  rebuilt  after  July  first, 
eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  or  which  shall  not  have  been  so  let 
or  occupied  before  said  date.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  without  such  per¬ 
mit  to  let  or  continue  to  be  let,  or  to  occupy  or  suffer  to  be  occupied 
separately  as  a  dwelling  any  vault,  cellar,  or  underground  room  what- 


a  So  in  the  original. 


CHAPTER  II. — SANITARY  LAWS. 


29 


soever,  unless  the  same  be  in  every  part  thereof  at  least  seven  feet  in 
height,  measured  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  thereof,  nor  unless  the 
same  be  for  at  least  one  foot  of  its  height  above  the  surface  of  the  street 
or  ground  adjoining  or  nearest  to  the  same,  nor  unless  there  be  outside 
of  and  adjoining  the  said  vault,  cellar,  or  room,  and  extending  along 
the  entire  frontage  thereof,  and  upwards  from  six  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  floor  thereof,  up  to  the  surface  of  the  said  street  or  ground  an 
open  space  of  at  least  two  feet  and  six  inches  wide  in  every  part,  nor 
unless  the  same  be  well  and  effectually  drained  by  means  of  a  drain,  the 
uppermost  part  of  which  is  one  foot  at  least  below  the  level  of  the  floor 
of  such  vault,  cellar,  or  room,  nor  unless  there  is  a  clear  space  of  not 
less  than  one  foot  below  the  level  of  the  floor,  except  where  the  same  is 
cemented,  nor  unless  there  be  appurtenant  to  such  vault,  cellar,  or  room, 
the  use  of  a  water-closet  or  privy  kept  and  provided  as  in  this  title 
required;  nor  unless  the  same  have  an  external  window  opening  of  at 
least  nine  superficial  feet  clear  of  the  sash  frame,  in  which  window 
opening  there  shall  be  fitted  a  frame  filled  in  with  glazed  sashes,  at 
least  four  and  a  half  superficial  feet  of  which  shall  be  made  so  as  to 
open  for  the  purpose  of  ventilation.  Provided,  however,  that  in  the  case 
of  an  inner  or  back  vault,  cellar,  or  room,  let  or  occupied  along  with  a 
front  vault,  cellar,  or  room,  as  part  of  the  same  letting  or  occupation,  it 
shall  be  a  sufficient  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  this  section  if  the 
front  room  is  provided  with  a  window  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and  if  the 
said  back  vault,  cellar,  or  room  is  connected  with  the  front  vault,  cellar, 
or  room  by  a  door,  and  also  by  a  proper  ventilating  or  transom  window, 
and,  where  practicable,  also  connected  by  a  proper  ventilating  or  tran¬ 
som  window,  or  by  some  hall  or  passage  communicating  with  the  external 
air.  Provided  always  that  in  any  area  adjoining  a  vault,  cellar,  or 
underground  room  there  may  be  steps  necessary  for  access  to  such 
vault,  cellar,  or  room,  if  the  same  be  so  placed  as  not  to  be  over,  across, 
or  opposite  to  the  said  external  window,  and  so  as  to  allow  between 
every  part  of  such  steps  and  the  external  wall  of  such  vault,  cellar,  or 
room,  a  clear  space  of  six  inches  at  least,  and  if  the  rise  of  said  steps 
is  open;  and  provided  further  that  over  or  across  any  such  area  there 
may  be  steps  necessary  for  access  to  any  building  above  the  vault, 
cellar,  or  room  to  which  such  area  adjoins,  if  the  same  be  so  placed  as 
not  to  be  over,  across,  or  opposite  to  any  such  external  window. 

Sec.  655.  No  vault,  cellar,  or  underground  room  shall  be  occupied  as 
a  place  of  lodging  or  sleeping,  except  the  same  shall  be  approved,  in 
writing,  and  a  permit  given  therefor  by  the  board  of  health. 

Sec.  656.  Every  tenement  or  lodging  house  shall  have  the  proper  and 
suitable  conveniences  or  receptacles  for  receiving  garbage  and  other 
refuse  matters.  No  tenement  or  lodging  house,  nor  any  portion  thereof, 
shall  be  used  as  a  place  of  storage  for  any  combustible  article,  or  any 
article  dangerous  to  life  or  detrimental  to  health;  nor  shall  any  horse, 
cow,  calf,  swine,  pig,  sheep,  or  goat  be  kept  in  said  house. 

Sec.  657  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  Every  tenement 
or  lodging  house,  and  every  part  thereof  shall  be  kept  clean  and  free 
from  any  accumulations  of  dirt,  filth,  garbage  or  other  matter  in  or  on 
the  same,  or  in  the  yard,  court,  passage,  area  or  alley  connected  with 
it  or  belonging  to  the  same.  The  owner  or  keeper  of  any  lodging 
house,  and  the  owner  or  lessee  of  any  tenement  house  or  part  thereof, 
shall  thoroughly  cleanse  all  the  rooms,  passages,  stairs,  floors,  windows, 
doors,  walls,  ceilings,  privies,  cesspools  and  drains  of  the  house  or  part 
of  the  house  of  which  he  is  the  owner  or  lessee,  to  the  satisfaction  ot 
the  board  of  health,  so  often  as  he  shall  be  required  by  or  in  accord- 


30  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

ance  with  any  regulation  or  ordiDance  of  said  board,  and  shall  well 
and  sufficiently,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  said  board,  whitewash  the 
walls  and  ceilings  thereof  twice  at  least  in  every  year,  in  the  months 
of  April  and  October,  unless  the  said  board  shall  otherwise  direct. 
Every  owner  of  a  tenement  or  lodging  house,  and  every  person  having 
control  of  a  tenement  or  lodging  house,  shall  file  in  the  department  of 
health  a  notice  containing  his  name  and  address,  and  also  a  description 
of  the  property  by  street  number,  or  otherwise,  as  the  case  may  be,  in 
such  manner  as  will  enable  the  board  of  health  easily  to  find  the 
same;  and  also  the  number  of  apartments  in  each  house,  the  number 
of  rooms  in  each  apartment,  the  number  of  families  occupying  each 
apartment,  and  the  trades  or  occupations  carried  on  therein.  Every 
person  claiming  to  have  an  interest  in  any  tenement  or  lodging  house 
may  file  his  name  and  address  in  the  department  of  health.  All 
notices  and  orders  of  the  board  of  health  required  by  law  to  be  served 
in  relation  to  a  tenement  or  lodging  house  shall  be  served  by  posting 
in  some  conspicuous  place  in  the  house,  a  copy  of  the  notice  or  order, 
five  days  before  the  time  for  doing  the  thing  in  relation  to  which  said 
notice  or  order  was  issued.  The  posting  of  a  copy  of  an  order  or 
notice,  in  accordance  with  this  section,  shall  be  sufficient  service  upon 
the  owner  of  the  property  affected.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board 
of  health  to  cause  a  copy  of  every  such  notice  or  order  to  be  mailed, 
on  the  same  day  that  it  is  posted  in  the  house,  addressed  to  the  name 
and  address  of  each  person  who  has  filed  with  the  department  of  health 
the  notice  provided  for  in  this  section. 

Sec.  658  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  board  of  health  to  cause  a  careful  inspection  to  be  made 
of  every  tenement  and  lodging  house  at  least  twice  in  each  year.  And 
whenever  the  board  of  health  has  made  any  order  concerning  a  tene¬ 
ment  or  lodging  house,  it  shall  cause  a  reinspection  to  be  made  of  the 
same  within  six  days  after  it  has  been  informed  that  the  order  has 
been  obeyed.  The  keeper  of  any  lodging  house,  the  owner,  agent  of 
the  owner,  lessee  and  occupant  of  any  tenement  house,  and  every  other 
person  having  the  care  and  management  thereof,  shall  at  all  times, 
when  required  by  any  officer  of  the  board  of  health,  or  by  any  officer 
upon  whom  any  duty  is  conferred  by  this  title,  give  him  free  access  to 
such  house  and  to  every  part  thereof.  The  owner  or  keeper  of  any 
lodging  house,  and  the  owner,  agent  of  the  owner,  and  the  lessee  of 
any  tenement  house,  or  part  thereof,  shall  whenever  any  person  in  such 
house  is  sick  of  fever,  or  of  any  infectious,  pestilental  (a)  or  contagious 
disease,  and  such  sickness  is  known  to  such  owner,  keeper,  agent  or 
lessee,  give  immediate  notice  thereof  to  the  board  of  health,  or  to  some 
officer  of  the  same,  and  thereupon  said  board  shall  cause  the  same  to 
be  inspected,  and  may,  if  found  necessary,  cause  the  same  to  be  imme¬ 
diately  cleansed  or  disinfected  at  the  expense  of  the  owner,  in  such 
manner  as  they  may  deem  necessary  and  effectual;  and  they  may  also 
cause  the  blankets,  bedding  and  bedclothes  used  by  any  such  sick 
person  to  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  scoured  and  fumigated,  or  in  extreme 
cases  to  be  destroyed. 

Seo.  659  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  Whenever  it 
shall  be  certified  to  the  board  of  health  of  the  health  department  of  the 
city  of  New  York  by  the  sanitary  superintendent,  that  any  building  or 
part  thereof  in  the  city  of  New  York  is  infected  with  contagious  disease, 
or  by  reason  by  want  of  repair  has  become  dangerous  to  life,  or  is  unfit 


a  So  in  the  original. 


CHAPTER  IL - SANITARY  LAWS. 


31 


for  human  habitation  because  of  defects  in  drainage  plumbing,  ventila 
tion,  or  the  construction  of  the  same,  or  because  of  the  existence  of  a 
nuisance  on  the  premises  and  which  is  likely  to  cause  sickness  among 
its  occupants,  the  said  board  of  health  may  issue  an  order  requiring  all 
persons  therein  to  vacate  such  building  or  part  thereof  for  the  reasons 
to  be  stated  therein  as  aforesaid.  Said  board  shall  cause  said  order  to 
be  affixed  conspicuously  in  the  building  or  part  thereof  and  to  be  per¬ 
sonally  served  on  the  owner,  lessee,  agent,  occupant  or  any  person  hav¬ 
ing  the  charge  or  care  thereof;  if  the  owner,  lessee  or  agent  can  not  be 
found  in  the  city  of  New  York  or  do  not  reside  therein  or  evade  or  resist 
service,  then  said  order  may  be  served  by  depositing  a  copy  thereof  in 
the  post  office  in  the  city  of  New  York,  properly  inclosed  and  addressed 
to  such  owner,  lessee  or  agent  at  his  last  known  place  of  business  or 
residence,  and  prepaying  the  postage  thereon;  such  building  or  part 
thereof  shall  within  ten  days  after  said  order  shall  have  been  posted 
and  mailed  as  aforesaid  or  within  such  shorter  time  not  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours,  as  in  said  order  may  be  specified,  be  vacated,  but  said  board 
whenever  it  shall  become  satisfied  that  the  danger  from  said  building 
or  part  thereof  has  ceased  to  exist,  or  that  said  building  has  been 
repaired  so  as.  to  be  habitable,  may  revoke  said  order. 

Sec.  660.  No  house  erected  after  May  fourteenth,  eighteen  hundred 
and  sixty-seven,  shall  be  used  as  a  tenement  house  or  lodging  house, 
and  no  house  heretofore  erected  and  not  now  used  for  such  purpose 
shall  be  converted  into,  used,  or  leased  for  a  tenement  or  lodging  house, 
unless,  in  addition  to  the  requirements  hereinbefore  contained,  it  con¬ 
forms  to  requirements  contained  in  the  following  sections  of  this  title: 

Sec.  661  (as  amended  by  chapters  84  and  288,  laws  of  1887).  It  shall 
not  be  lawful  hereafter  to  erect  for,  or  convert  to  the  purposes  of  a  tene¬ 
ment  or  lodging  house,  a  building  on  any  lot  where  there  is  another 
building  on  the  same  lot,  or  to  build,  or  to  erect  any  building  on  any 
lot  whereon  there  is  already  a  tenement  or  lodging  house,  unless  there 
is  a  clear  open  space  exclusively  belonging  thereto,  and  extending 
upward  from  the  ground  of  at  least  ten  feet  between  said  buildings  if 
they  are  one  story  high  above  the  level  of  the  ground;  if  they  are  two 
stories  high,  the  distance  between  them  shall  not  be  less  than  fifteen ; 
if  they  are  three  stories  high,  the  distance  between  them  shall  not  be 
less  than  twenty  feet;  and  if  they  are  more  than  three  stories  high,  the 
distance  between  them  shall  not  be  less  than  twenty-five  feet;  but  when 
thorough  ventilation  of  such  opeu  spaces  can  be  otherwise  secured,  such 
distances  may  be  lessened  or  modified  in  special  cases  by  a  permit 
from  the  board  of  health.  At  the  rear  of  every  building  hereafter 
erected  for  or  converted  to  the  purposes  of  a  tenement  or  lodging  house 
on  any  lot,  there  shall  be  and  remain  a  clear  open  space  of  not  less  than 
ten  feet  between  it  and  the  rear  line  of  the  .lot,  but  this  provision  may 
be  modified  as  to  corner  lots  in  special  cases  by  a  permit  from  the  board 
of  health.  No  one  continuous  building  shall  be  built  for  or  converted 
to  the  purposes  of  a  tenement  or  lodging  house  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  upon  an  ordinary  city  lot,  and  no  existing  tenement  or  lodging 
house  shall  be  enlarged  or  altered,  or  its  lot  be  diminished  so  that  it 
shall  occupy  more  than  sixty-five  per  centum  of  the  said  lot,  and  in  the 
same  proportion  if  the  lot  be  greater  or  less  in  size  than  twenty-five 
feet  by  one  hundred  feet;  but  this  provision  shall  not  apply  to  corner 
lots,  and  may  be  modified  in  other  special  cases  by  a  permit  from  the 
board  of  health.  In  case  of  any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  sec¬ 
tion,  or  of  any  failure  to  comply  with  or  of  any  violation  of  the  terms 
and  conditions  of  the  plan  for  such  tenement  or  lodging  house  approved 


32  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


by  the  said  board  of  health,  or  of  the  conditions  of  the  permit  granted 
by  the  board  of  health  for  such  house,  or  for  the  air,  light  and  venti¬ 
lation  of  the  same,  any  court  of  record,  or  any  judge  or  justice  thereof 
shall  have  power,  at  any  time  after  service  of  notice  of  violation,  or  of 
noncompliance,  upon  the  owner,  builder  or  other  person  superintend¬ 
ing  the  building  or  converting  of  any  such  house,  upon  proof  by  affidavit 
of  any  violation  or  noncompliance  as  aforesaid,  or  that  a  plan  for  light 
and  ventilation  of  such  house  has  not  been  approved  by  the  board  of 
health,  to  restrain  by  injunction  order,  in  an  action  by  the  health  depart¬ 
ment,  of  the  farther  progress  of  any  violation  as  aforesaid.  No  under¬ 
taking  shall  be  required  as  a  condition  of  granting  an  injunction,  or 
by  reason  thereof.  # 

Sec.  G62.  In  every  such  house  hereafter  erected  or  converted  every 
habitable  room,  except  rooms  in  the  attic,  shall  be  in  every  part  not 
less  than  eight  feet  in  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling;  and  every 
habitable  room  in  the  attic  of  any  such  building  shall  be  at  least  eight 
feet  in  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  throughout  not  less  than 
one-half  the  area  of  such  room.  Every  such  room  shall  have  at  least 
one  window  connecting  with  the  external  air,  or  over  the  door  a  venti¬ 
lator  of  perfect  construction,  connecting  it  with  a  room  or  hall  which 
has  a  connection  with  the  external  air,  and  so  arranged  as  to  produce  a 
cross  current  of  air.  The  total  area  of  window  or  windows  in  every  room 
communicating  with  the  external  air  shall  be  at  least  one-tenth  of  the 
superflcial  area  of  every  such  room;  and  the  top  of  one,  at  least,  of  such 
windows  shall  not  be  less  than  seven  feet  six  inches  above  the  floor, 
and  the  upper  half,  at  least,  shall  be  made  so  as  to  open  the  full  width. 
Every  habitable  room  of  a  less  area  than  one  hundred  superflcial  feet, 
if  it  does  not  communicate  directly  with  the  external  air,  and  is  with¬ 
out  an  open  fireplace,  shall  be  provided  with  special  means  of  ventila¬ 
tion,  by  a  separate  airshaft  extending  to  the  roof,  or  otherwise,  as  the 
board  of  health  may  prescribe.  But  in  all  houses  erected  or  converted, 
after  June  sixteenth,  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-nine,  which  shall 
be  used,  occupied,  leased,  or  rented  for  a  tenement  or  lodging  house, 
every  room  used,  let,  or  occupied  by  any  person  or  persons  for  sleeping 
shall  have  at  least  one  window,  with  a  movable  sash,  having  an  open¬ 
ing  of  not  less  than  twelve  square  feet,  admitting  light  and  air  directly 
from  the  public  street  or  the  yard  of  said  house,  unless  sufficient  light 
and  ventilation  shall  be  otherwise  provided,  in  a  manner  and  upon  a 
plan  approved  by  the  board  of  health. 

Sec.  663  (as  amended  by  chapter  34,  laws  of  1887).  Every  such  house 
erected  after  May  fourteenth,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven,  or 
converted,  shall  have  adequate  chimneys  running  through  every  floor, 
with  an  open  fireplace  or  grate,  or  place  for  a  stove,  properly  connected 
with  one  of  said  chimneys  for  every  family  set  of  apartments.  It  shall 
have  proper  conveniences  and  receptacles  for  ashes  and  rubbish.  It 
shall  have  Croton  or  other  water  furnished  in  sufficient  quantity  at  one 
or  more  places  on  each  floor,  occupied  or  intended  to  be  occupied  by  one 
or  more  families;  and  all  tenement  houses  shall  be  provided  with  a  like 
supply  of  water  by  the  owners  thereof  whenever  they  shall  be  directed 
so  to  do  by  the  board  of  health.  But  a  failure  in  the  general  supply  of 
water  by  the  city  authorities  shall  not  be  construed  to  be  a  failure  on 
the  part  of  such  owner  provided  that  proper  and  suitable  appliances  to 
receive  and  distribute  such  water  are  placed  in  said  house.  Provided 
that  the  board  of  health  shall  see  to  it  that  all  tenement  houses  are  so 
supplied  before  January  first,  eighteen  hand  red  and  eighty-nine.  Every 
tenement  house  shall  have  the  floor  of  the  cellar  made  water-tight;  and 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


33 


the  ceiling  plastered,  and  when  the  house  is  located  over  filled  in  ground, 
or  over  marshy  ground,  or  ground  on  which  water  lies,  the  cellar  floor 
shall  be  covered  so  as  to  effectually  prevent  evaporation  or  dampness. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  health  (a)  that  the  cellars  of  all 
tenement  houses  are  so  made  or  altered  as  to  comply  with  this  section 
before  January  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety.  Every  such  house 
erected  after  May  seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  or  con¬ 
verted  shall  have  the  halls  on  each  floor  open  directly  to  the  external 
air,  with  suitable  windows,  and  shall  have  no  room  or  other  obstruction 
at  the  end,  unless  sufficient  light  or  ventilation  is  otherwise  provided 
for  in  said  halls  in  a  manner  approved  by  the  board  or  health. 

Sec.  664  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  Whenever  it 
shall  be  certified  to  the  board  of  health  by  the  sanitary  superintendent 
that  any  tenement  house  or  room  therein  is  so  overcrowded  that  there 
shall  be  afforded  less  than  six  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  to  each  occu¬ 
pant  of  such  building  or  room,  the  said  board  may  if  it  deem  the  same 
to  be  wise  or  necessary,  issue  an  order  requiring  the  number  of  occu¬ 
pants  of  such  building  or  room  to  be  reduced,  so  that  the  inmates 
thereof  shall  not  exceed  one  person  to  each  six  hundred  cubic  feet  of 
air  space  in  such  building  or  room.  Whenever  there  shall  be  more 
than  eight  families  living  in  any  tenement  house,  in  which  the  owner 
thereof  does  not  reside,  there  shall  be  a  janitor,  housekeeper  or  some 
other  responsible  person,  who  shall  reside  in  the  said  house,  and  have 
charge  of  the  same,  if  the  board  of  health  shall  so  require. 

Sec.  665.  Every  owner  or  other  person  violating  any  provision  of  this 
title  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprison¬ 
ment  for  not  more  than  ten  days  for  each  and  every  day  that  such  vio¬ 
lation  shall  continue,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment,  in  the 
discretion  of  the  court.  He  shall  also  be  liable  to  pay  a  penalty  of  ten 
dollars  tor  each  and  every  day  that  such  offense  shall  continue.  Such 
penalty  may  be  sued  for  and  recovered  by  the  board  of  health,  and 
when  recovered  shall  be  paid  over  to  the  city  chamberlain  and  become 
part  of  the  tenement  house  fund,  directed  by  section  one  hundred  and 
ninety-four,  subdivision  nine,  of  this  act,  to  be  annually  appropriated 
to  the  ci  edit  of  the  health  department  and  to  be  expended  by  the  board 
of  health.  In  every  proceeding  for  a  violation  of  this  title,  and  in  every 
such  action  for  a  penalty,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner  of  the  house 
to  prove  the  date  of  its  erection  or  conversion  to  its  existing  use,  if  that 
fact  shall  become  material,  and  the  owner  shall  be  prima  facie  the  per¬ 
son  liable  to  pay  such  penalty,  and  after  him  the  person  who  is  the 
lessee  of  the  whole  house,  in  preference  to  the  tenant  or  lessee  of  a  part 
thereof.  In  such  action  the  owner,  lessee,  and  occupant,  or  any  two  of 
them,  may  be  made  defendants,  and  judgment  may  be  given  against  the 
one  or  more  shown  to  be  liable,  as  if  he  or  they  were  sole  defendant  or 
defendants. 

Sec.  666  (as  amended  by  chapter  84,  laws  of  1887).  A  tenement 
house  within  the  meaning  of  this  title  shall  be  taken  to  mean  and 
include  every  house  building  or  portion  thereof  which  is  rented,  leased, 
let  or  hired  out  to  be  occupied  or  is  occupied  as  the  home  or  residence 
of  three  families  or  more,  living  independently  of  each  other,  and  doing 
their  cooking  upon  the  premises,  or  by  more  than  two  families  upon 
any  floor,  so  living  and  cooking,  but  having  a  common  right  in  the 
halls,  stairways,  yards,  water  closets  or  privies  or  some  of  them. 
A  lodging  house  shall  be  taken  to  mean  and  include  any  house  or 


H.  Ex.  354 - 3 


a  So  in  the  original. 


34  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

building  or  portion  thereof  in  which  persons  are  harbored  or  received 
or  lodged  for  hire  for  a  single  night  or  for  less  than  a  week  at  one 
time,  or  any  part  of  which  is  let  for  any  person  to  sleep  in,  for  any  term 
less  than  a  week.  A  cellar  shall  be  taken  to  mean  and  include  every 
basement  or  lower  story  of  any  building  or  house  of  which  one-half  or 
more  of  the  height  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  is  below  the  level  of  the 
street  adjoining. 

Sec.  667.  The  board  of  health  shall  have  authority  to  make  other 
regulations  as  to  cellars  and  as  to  ventilation,  consistent  with  the  fore¬ 
going,  where  it  shall  be  satisfied  that  such  regulations  will  secure 
equally  well  the  health  of  the  occupants. 

COMPLAINTS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  board  of  health  has  published  for  the  benefit  of  its  inspectors 
and  the  public  a  list  of  recommendations  commonly  made  to  cover 
certain  classes  of  complaints.  They  may  be  considered  as  types,  so  to 
speak,  and  afford  to  all  interested  a  simple  and  speedy  method  of  deal¬ 
ing  with  insanitary  features.  The  subject-matter  of  the  most  common 
classes  of  complaints  and  the  recommendations  of  the  inspectors  appear 
in  the  following  statements : 

Complaint:  That  the  soil-pipe  of  the  water-closet  (give  location,  etc.) 
is  obstructed,  and  the  bowl  (or  hopper)  is  filthy  and  offensive.  Recom¬ 
mendation  :  That  the  water-closet  be  cleaned  and  all  obstructions  in 
soil-pipe  removed. 

C.  That  the  water-closet  is  not  (or  is  not  properly)  flushed,  and  is 
offensive.  R.  That  the  water-closet  be  cleaned  and  properly  flushed. 

C.  That  the  pan  of  the  water-closet  leaks  (or  is  not  properly  adjusted), 
and  does  not  preserve  a  water-seal.  R.  That  the  defective  pan  of  water- 
closet  be  replaced  by  a  new  one  (or  be  readjusted  so  as  to  preserve  a 
water-seal). 

C.  That  the  hopper  of  the  water-closet  is  old,  corroded,  and  can  not 
be  kept  clean,  and  is  filthy  and  offensive.  R.  That  the  old,  corroded 
hopper  of  water-closet  be  replaced  by  a  new  enameled  one. 

C.  That  the  floor  under  the  seat  of  the  water-closet  is  not  protected 
from  drippings  of  urine,  and  is  filthy  and  offensive.  R.  That  the  water- 
closet  be  provided  with  an  enameled  drip  tray,  and  the  floor  under  the 
seat  cleaned  and  disinfected. 

C.  That  the  drip  tray  is  an  old  metallic  one,  filthy  with  urinary  depos¬ 
its.  R.  That  the  old,  corroded,  filthy  drip  tray  be  replaced  by  an  enam¬ 
eled  one. 

0.  That  the  water-closet  apartments  are  not  (or  are  insufficiently) 
ventilated.  R.  That  the  water-closet  apartments  be  ventilated  by  a 
special  shaft  (8  inches,  etc.),  extending  above  the  roof,  and  that  the 
doors  be  cut  away  at  least  3  inches  at  the  bottom  to  promote  ventilation. 

C.  That  the  woodwork  of  the  water  closet  is  saturated  with  filth,  so 
that  it  can  not  be  projierly  cleaned.  R.  That  the  filthy  woodwork  of 
water-closet  be  replaced  by  new. 

C.  That  the  supply-pipe  of  the  water-closet  leaks.  R.  That  the  sup¬ 
ply-pipe,  etc.,  be  repaired  so  as  not  to  leak. 

0.  That  the  water-closets  (or  water  closet  on  the - floor)  are 

flushed  directly  from  the  Groton  water  supply-pipe  of  the  house,  and 
the  water  used  for  drinking  and  cooking  purposes  is  in  danger  of  con¬ 
tamination.  R.  That  each  water-closet  (give  location)  be  flushed  from 
a  water-supplied  cistern,  properly  adjusted  over  the  same. 


■■ 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


35 


0.  That  the  school  sink  (location)  is  not  properly  flushed,  and  is 
filthy  and  often  si  ve.  K.  That  the  school  sink  be  disinfected,  emptied 
and  cleaned,  and  flushed  daily. 

C.  That  the  school  sink  discharges  its  contents  into  a  manhole  which 
is  sewer  connected,  but  is  always  filthy  with  sewage.  R.  That  the 
school  sink  be  connected  with  house  drain  (a)  by  a  continuous  pipe,  with 
running  trap  and  hand-hole,  and  that  said  manhole  be  cleaned  and  filled 
with  fresh  earth. 

C.  That  the  urinal  is  not  properly  flushed,  and  is  filthy  aud  offensive. 
R.  That  the  urinal  be  cleaned  and  properly  flushed. 

0.  That  the  urinal  is  an  old,  corroded  metallic  one,  filthy  and  difficult 
to  clean.  R.  That  the  old,  corroded  urinal  be  replaced  by  a  new  enam¬ 
eled  one  (or  by  a  porcelain  one).  . 

C.  That  the  floor  under  the  urinal  is  not  protected,  and  is  filthy  with 
drippings  of  urine.  R.  That  a  safe  be  constructed  under  urinal,  aud 
the  filthy  and  saturated  flooring  be  replaced  by  new. 

C.  That  the  waste-pipes  of  the  sinks  (or  urinals,  etc.)  are  not  trapped, 
and  the  main  waste-pipe  is  not  ventilated  (or  is  insufficiently  ventilated 
by  a  three-quarter  inch  pipe,  etc.).  R.  That  the  sinks,  etc.,  be  prop¬ 
erly  trapped,  and  the  main  waste-pipe  extended  in  full  caliber  2  feet 
above  the  roof. 

0.  That  the  lead  waste-pipes  of  the  sinks  are  connected  with  the  iron 
main  waste-pipe  by  defective  cement  (or  putty)  joints.  R.  That  all 
connections  between  lead  waste-pipes  from  sinks  and  the  main  waste- 
pipe  be  made  with  brass  ferrules,  lead  calked,  and  wiped. 

0.  That  the  lead  waste-pipe  is  connected  with  the  iron  drain  by  a 
lead  saddle  wired  on  (or  puttied  or  cemented).  R.  That  the  lead  waste- 
pipe  be  connected  with  the  iron  drain  by  means  of  an  iron  saddle  hub, 
brass  ferrule,  etc. 

0.  That  the  lead  waste  pipe  leaks.  R.  That  the  waste-pipe  be 
repaired  so  as  not  to  leak. 

C.  That  the  safe  wastes  (give  location,  under  pumps,  water-closets, 
basins,  etc.)  are  connected  with  the  soil-pipe  and  are  not  sealed.  R. 
That  the  safe  wastes  (etc.)  be  soldered  up  (or  made  to  discharge  through 
a  continuous  pipe  upon  the  cellar  floor,  or  into  a  trapped,  sewer  con¬ 
nected,  water  supplied,  open  sink). 

C.  That  the  traps  under  sinks  are  emptied  by  siphoning.  R.  That 
the  traps  (etc.)  be  so  adjusted  that  they  can  not  be  siphoned. 

G.  That  the  overflow  pipe  of  tank  is  connected  with  the  soil-pipe. 
R.  That  the  tank  overflow  pipe  be  disconnected  from  the  pipe. 

0.  That  the  waste-pipe  of  ice-box  is  connected  with  the  house  drain. 
R.  That  the  waste-pipe  of  the  ice-box  be  disconnected  from  the  drain 
and  be  made  to  discharge  into  a  properly  trapped,  sewer  connected, 
water  supplied,  open  sink. 

0.  That  the  soil-pipe  is  not  ventilated  (or  is  insufficiently  ventilated 
by  a  1-inch  or  2-inch  pipe,  etc.).  R.  That  the  soil-pipe  be  ventilated 
by  extending  the  same  in  full  caliber  2  feet  above  the  roof. 

C.  That  the  soil-pipe  serves  as  a  leader,  and  the  traps  of  the  sinks 
and  water-closets  connected  therewith  are  siphoned.  R.  That  the  use 
of  the  soil-pipe  as  a  rain  leader  be  discontinued,  and  a  separate  and 
independent  rain  leader  be  provided;  that  the  soil-pipe  be  ventilated 
i  by  extending  same  in  full  caliber  2  feet  above  the  roof. 

C.  That  the  soil-pipe  is  defective  (give  location).  R.  That  the  defects 
in  soil-pipe  on - floor  be  closed  with  iron  bands. 

a  The  house  drain  extends  through  the  front  wall  of  the  house;  the  house  sewer 
from  the  front  wall  to  street  Bower. 


36  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


C.  That  the  earthenware  house  drain  is  defective,  and  foul  gases  and 
liquids  escape  therefrom  into  the  cellar.  R.  That  the  defective  earthen 
house  drain  be  removed,  its  site  cleaned,  disinfected  and  filled  with  fresh 
earth,  and  the  premises  separately  and  independently  connected  with 
the  street  sewer  by  and  through  heavy  iron  pipe,  at  least  6  inches  in 
diameter,  with  all  joints  properly  lead  calked. 

C.  That  there  are  holes  in  the  iron  house  drain  in  cellar.  R.  That 
the  holes  in  iron  drain  in  cellar  be  closed  with  iron  bands. 

C.  That  the  house  drain  is  defective  (or  obstructed),  and  sewage  leaks 
therefrom  into  the  cellar.  R.  That  the  house  drain  be  repaired  so  as 
not  to  leak  (or  that  all  obstructions  be  removed  from  the  house  drain, 
and  all  defects  therein  be  properly  repaired). 

C.  That  the  yard  (or  front  or  rear  area)  is  not  properly  graded  or 
drained,  and  surface  water  stagnates  thereon.  R.  That  the  yard  (etc.) 
be  properly  graded  and  drained  so  that  all  surface  water  shall  be  dis¬ 
charged  into  a  properly  trapped,  sewer  connected  drain  (or  into  the 
hydrant  sink,  etc.). 

C.  That  the  pavement  of  the  yard  is  broken  and  sunken,  so  that 
surface  water  stagnates  thereon.  R.  That  the  pavement  of  the  yard 
be  properly  repaired. 

0.  That  the  (front  or  rear)  leader  leaks,  and  the  escaping  contents 

fall  into  the - (or  run  into  the  cellar,  or  render  the  subjacent  wall 

wet  and  unhealthy).  R.  When  the  foundation  walls  of  houses  or  walls 
are  made  wet  by  a  defective  leader,  refer  to  fire  department. 

G.  That  the  rear  leader  (or  leader  of  rear  extension,  etc.)  is  not 
trapped,  and  foul  odors  therefrom  enter  the  windows  of  (location).  R. 
That  the  rear  leader  (or  leader  of  rear  extension)  be  trapped  at  its  base. 

0.  That  the  (front  or  rear)  eaves  gutter  leaks  (or  is  badly  adjusted) 
so  that  roof  water  overflows  into - .  R.  Refer  to  fire  department. 

0.  That  the  roof  leaks,  rendering  the  upper  rooms  damp.  R.  That 
the  roof  be  repaired  so  as  not  to  leak. 

C.  That  the  cellar  is  used  as  a  place  of  lodging  and  sleeping;  that 
the  ceiling  is  on  a  level  with  the  sidewalk  (or  below,  or  only  6  inches 
above};  that  there  is  no  sub  cellar;  that  the  ceiling  is  not  7  feet  above 
the  floor;  that  it  is  ventilated  and  lighted  only  by  (give  details);  that 
it  is  damp,  dark,  and  unfit  for  human  habitation.  R.  That  the  cellar 
be  vacated  as  a  place  of  lodging  and  sleeping. 

C.  That  the  cellar  (areas,  halls,  etc.)  is  filthy  with  dirt,  garbage,  and 
rubbish  (or  sewage,  etc.);  that  the  privy  house  is  filthy  and  offensive 
with  night-soil,  etc.  R.  That  the  cellar  (or  yard,  privy  house,  etc.)  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected. 

0.  That  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  the  halls  (front  or  rear,  or  both,  or 
of  apartments)  are  dirty.  R.  That  the  walls  and  ceilings  (halls,  rooms, 
etc.)  be  cleaned  and  whitewashed. 

0.  That  the  chimney  (or  soil-pipe,  etc.,  give  location)  rises  to  a  level 

with - story  of - ,  and  smoke  and  coal  gas  (or  offensive  odors) 

therefrom  enter  the  (front,  rear,  or  side)  windows  of - .  R.  That 

the  nuisance  caused  by  the  escape  of  smoke  and  coal  gas  from  chimney 
of - (or  offensive  odors  from  soil-pipe)  into  - be  abated. 

C.  That  the  ceiling  of - room  (or  of  hall,  etc.)  is  loose  and 

threatens  to  fall,  a  part  having  already  fallen.  R.  That  the  ceiling  of 
(rooms,  halls,  etc.)  be  properly  repaired. 

0.  That  the  inner  bedrooms  have  no  windows  opening  into  the  hall 
or  into  the  adjoining  room,  as  required  by  the  tenement  house  act.  R. 
That  the  inner  bedrooms  be  ventilated  by  means  of  a  window  not  less 
than  3  square  feet  in  area,  opening  into  the  hall,  and  another  of  equal 
area  opening  into  the  front  (or  rear)  room. 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


37 


C.  That  the  stable  floor  and  space  beneath  is  not  properly  drained, 
and  said  floor  is  defective,  and  the  leakage  through  the  same  renders 
the  earth  beneath  very  filthy  and  offensive.  It.  That  all  offensive 
earth  be  removed  from  beneath  the  stable  floor,  the  ground  space 
cleaned,  disinfected,  cemented,  and  so  graded  and  drained  that  all 
surface  water  and  liquid  matter  shall  be  discharged  into  the  street 
sewer  by  and  through  a  properly  trapped,  extra  heavy  iron  drain ;  that 
the  floor  of  horse  stalls  be  provided  with  a  valley  drain  properly 
trapped  and  connected  with  the  sewer  connected  drain. 

C.  That  the  vacant  lot  is  constantly  wet  with  surface  water,  which 
stagnates  thereon.  R.  That  the  vacant  lot  be  filled  with  fresh  earth 
1  foot  above  the  level  of  standing  water  thereon  (where  there  is  no 
sewer  in  street);  that  the  vacant  lot  be  properly  graded  aud  drained, 
so  that  all  suiface  water  shall  be  discharged  into  the  street  sewer, 
through  a  properly  trapped  drain  (where  there  is  a  sewer  in  street). 

During  the  year  1891  the  number  of  inspections  and  reinspections 
made  by  the  sanitary  inspectors  was  09,515,  as  against  39,202  in  1890, 
resulting  in  13,222  complaints  and  orders  for  the  abatement  of  nui¬ 
sances,  as  against  9,536  in  1890. 

ENGLAND. 

The  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890  is  the  most  important 
English  sanitary  law,  but  as  it  refers  chiefly  to  expropriation  and 
demolition  its  principal  features  are  set  forth  in  the  next  chapter. 
The  public  health  act  of  1875  applies  to  England,  with  the  exception  of 
London,  but  only  brief  reference  to  it  is  necessary,  for  the  reason  that 
so  many  of  the  larger  cities  derive  their  powers  of  dealing  with  insani¬ 
tary  houses  from  local  improvement  acts  passed  by  Parliament. 

The  earliest  example  of  sanitary  law  of  which  there  is  any  record  in 
England  was  an  enactment,  in  the  year  1388,  designed  to  prevent  the 
pollution  of  rivers  and  ditches.  In  the  present  century  the  first  com¬ 
prehensive  measure  was  the  public  health  act  of  1848,  made  applicable 
to  the  whole  country.  Under  it  a  general  board  of  health  was  created. 
Lord  Shaftesbury  was  chairman  of  this  body  and  Mr.  Edwin  Chadwick 
one  of  its  chief  officers.  The  powers  of  this  general  board  of  health 
expired  by  limitation  in  1853;  they  were  handed  over  partly  to  the 
home  office  and  partly  to  the  privy  council,  but  were  afterwards 
assumed  by  the  local  government  board  in  1871.  Strange  as  it  may 
seem,  London  was  not  included  in  the  operation  of  the  public  health 
act  of  1848,  but  local  boards  of  health  were  formed  in  conformity  with 
its  provisions  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  From  1848  to  1875  a 
vast  amount  of  tinkering  with  sanitary  legislation  was  done.  In  the 
latter  year  the  enactment  which  still  serves  as  the  provincial  code  was 
passed. 

Under  the  law  of  1875  two  classes  of  sanitary  units  were  created, 
namely,  urban  and  rural  districts.  There  are  three  divisions  of  the 
former,  boroughs,  improvement  act  districts  (districts  situated  outside 
of  the  borough  or  local  government  district),  aud  local  government  dis- 


38  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

tricts  situated  without  the  area  of  the  borough  and  not  coincident  with 
a  borough  or  improvement  act  district.  The  administrative  authorities 
for  boroughs  are  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  burgesses ;  for  improvement 
act  districts,  the  improvement  commissioners ;  and  for  local  government 
districts,  the  local  board.  The  administration  of  rural  sanitary  districts 
is  confided  to  the  board  of  guardians. 

Urban  sanitary  authorities  are  clothed  with  the  power  to  make  by¬ 
laws,  while  the  rural  are  not.  Sanitary  provisions  include  regulations  in 
regard  to  sewerage  and  drainage,  water  supply,  scavenging  and  cleans¬ 
ing,  privies  and  water-closets,  and  nuisances.  Under  the  category  of 
nuisances  appear  premises  in  such  a  state  as  to  be  injurious  to  health, 
or  a  pool,  ditch,  gutter,  water-course,  privy,  urinal,  cesspool,  drain, 
or  ash-pit  so  foul  as  to  be  injurious  to  health,  and  houses  or  parts  of 
houses  so  overcrowded  as  to  be  inimical  to  the  health  of  the  inmates. 

The  obligation  is  placed  upon  every  local  authority  to  have  an  inspec¬ 
tion  of  the  district  made  from  time  to  time  in  order  to  discover 
nuisances.  They  are  strictly  enjoined  to  proceed  with  abatement,  no 
matter  whether  the  knowledge  results  from  inspection  or  from  informa¬ 
tion  received  through  the  aggrieved  party  or  from  any  two  inhabitant 
householders  of  the  district,  or  through  such  officials  as  police  or  reliev¬ 
ing  officers.  The  procedure  necessary  is  to  serve  the  notice  on  the 
responsible  person  through  whose  default,  act,  or  sufferance  the  nui¬ 
sance  exists,  or  in  case  such  person  can  not  be  found,  on  the  owner  or 
occupier  of  the  premises,  requiring  him  to  make  abatement  within  a 
reasonable  period,  which  is  generally  construed  to  mean  twenty-four 
hours.  In  case  of  failure  to  comply  with  the  requisition  within  the 
specified  time,  or  where  the  nuisance  is  likely  to  recur,  the  local 
authority  makes  a  complaint  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  who  issues  a 
summons  requiring  the  person  on  whom  the  notice  was.served  to  appear 
before  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction.  The  court  makes  an  order  upon 
him  to  comply  with  all  the  requisitions  of  the  notice,  or  to  do  any  neces¬ 
sary  works  in  abatement  or  prevention.  The  court  may,  by  their  order, 
impose  a  penalty  not  exceeding  £5  ($24.33)  on  the  person  on  whom  the 
order  is  made.  When  the  nuisance  is  such  as  to  render  the  house  unfit 
for  human  habitation,  the  court  may  prohibit  its  use  for  such  purposes 
until  the  proper  repairs  have  been  made.  Any  person  not  obeying  an 
order  to  comply  with  the  requisitions  of  the  local  sanitary  authority  is 
liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  10s.  ($2.43)  per  day  during  the  period 
of  his  default.  If  he  acts  knowingly  and  willfully  in  contravention  of 
an  order  of  prohibition  he  is  liable  to  a  penalty  not  exceeding  20s. 
($4.87)  per  day  during  such  contrary  action.  The  local  sanitary 
authorities  have  always  the  right  to  enter  the  premises  and  abate  the 
nuisance  themselves,  recovering  in  a  summary  manner  the  expenses 
incurred  by  them  from  the  person  upon  whom  the  order  was  originally 
made.  In  cases  where  the  responsible  party  is  not  known  or  can  not 
be  found  the  order  of  the  court  may  be  executed  by  the  local  sanitary 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAW8.  39 

authority  itself.  Entry  upon  premises  is  permitted  between  9  a.m. 
and  6  p.  m. 

Should  the  local  authorities  fail  in  their  duty,  complaints  maybe  made 
by  any  person  aggrieved  thereby,  or  by  any  inhabitant  or  owner  of 
premises  within  the  district,  and  like  proceedings  and  consequences 
shall  follow  as  in  the  case  where  the  complainant  was  the  local  authority. 
Should  the  local  authority  be  derelict  in  its  duties,  appeal  may  be  made 
to  the  local  government  board,  which,  if  an  affirmative  view  be  taken, 
may  authorize  an  officer  of  police  within  the  district  to  institute  any 
proceedings  which  the  defaulting  authority  is  competent  to  initiate. 
Power  to  enter  a  house  or  part  of  a  house  used  as  a  dwelling  without 
consent  of  the  inhabitant  or  without  a  warrant  from  a  justice  is  not 
given.  The  local  sanitary  authority  is  not  restricted  to  summary  pro¬ 
ceedings  only,  but  where  an  inadequate  remedy  would  there  be  found 
is  entitled  to  take  proceedings  in  any  superior  court  of  law  or  equity 
in  order  to  enforce  the  abatement  or  prohibition  of  nuisances  or  to 
secure  the  recovery  of  penalties  or  a  punishment  of  offending  persons. 

Where  overcrowding  occurs  and  two  convictions  have  been  made 
within  three  months,  no  matter  whether  the  responsible  parties  were 
the  same  or  not,  a  court  of  summary  jurisdiction  may  direct  the  closing 
of  the  houses  for  whatever  period  is  deemed  necessary  upon  the  simple 
application  of  the  sanitary  authorities. 

The  scavenging  and  cleansing  of  premises,  including  the  removal  of 
house  refuse  and  the  contents  of  earth  closets,  privies,  ash-pits,  and 
cesspools,  may  be  undertaken  voluntarily,  or  obligatorily  if  ordered  by 
the  local  government  board,  by  the  local  sanitary  authorities.  They 
either  contract  for  this  work  themselves  or  they  make  by-laws  imposing 
the  obligation  upon  occupiers  to  do  the  work  at  proper  intervals. 

The  local  sanitary  authorities  are  competent  to  enforce  adequate  sup¬ 
ply  of  water-closets  and  ash-pits  in  all  newly  erected  or  rebuilt  houses, 
but  there  is  no  provision  making  a  water  supply  to  such  closets  com¬ 
pulsory.  Public  sewerage  and  drainage  are  under  the  control  of  the 
local  sanitary  authority.  Very  complete  powers  are  given  for  the 
acquisition  and  maintenance  of  sewers  and  drains.  Drainage  may  be 
required  for  undrained  houses. 

Owners  of  houses  without  water  supply  in  them  may  be  compelled  to 
provide  it  upon  proper  orders.  Where  nothing  is  done  to  carry  out 
requirements  in  this  respect  local  sanitary  authorities  may  themselves 
direct  or  furnish  a  supply  at  the  expense  of  the  owner  or  occupier,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

The  act  of  1875  stopped  the  growth  of  cellar  dwellings.  It  provided 
that  no  vault  or  underground  room  thereafter  built  or  rebuilt  should  be 
let  or  occupied  as  a  dwelling.  As  regards  cellars  already  inhabited,  it 
required  that  they  should  be  7  feet  high  and  that  at  least  3  feet  of  their 
height  should  be  above  the  surface  of  the  street  or  adjoining  ground. 
There  must  also  be  outside  and  adjoining  the  cellar,  and  extending 


40  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


along  the  entire  front,  and  upward  from  6  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
floor  to  the  surface  of  the  street  or  ground,  an  open  area  at  least  2$ 
feet  wide.  There  must  likewise  be  drains,  closets  or  privies,  and  ash-pits 
as  well  as  fireplaces,  and  an  external  window  9  square  feet  in  size  and 
readily  opened.  The  penalty  for  the  rental  of  cellars  for  dwelling  pur¬ 
poses  not  provided  in  the  manner  already  described  was  fixed  at  not 
exceeding  20s.  ($4.87)  per  day.  Where  two  convictions  have  taken 
place  within  three  months  the  premises  may  be  closed  either  tempo¬ 
rarily  or  permanently. 

THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH  (LONDON)  ACT  OF  1891. 

The  public  health  (London)  act  of  1891  represents  a  consolidation, 
so  to  speak,  of  sanitary  enactments  for  the  metropolis.  The  compe¬ 
tent  authorities  are,  for  the  city  of  London  proper,  the  commissioners 
of  sewers,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  rest  of  the  county  of  London  the 
vestries  of  parishes,  and  for  certain  unions  of  parishes  the  district 
board  or  the  board  of  guardians;  These  are  the  bodies  to  whom  is 
confided  the  initiative  in  all  sanitary  matters.  When,  however,  default 
is  proved  with  regard  to  the  removal  of  nuisances  or  the  enforcement 
of  by-laws,  etc.,  the  county  council  has  the  right  to  institute  proceed¬ 
ings  or  to  do  any  act  which  falls  within  the  attributions  of  the  local  sani¬ 
tary  authority.  It  is  empowered  to  make  whatever  ameliorations  seem 
necessary,  and  to  recover  the  expenses  of  the  same  from  the  vestry  or 
district  board.  Not  only  may  the  expenses  incurred  be  recovered  from 
the  local  sanitary  authorities,  but  also  if  the  work  is  so  important  as 
to  require  a  loan,  the  county  council,  with  the  consent  of  the  local 
government  board,  is  authorized  to  borrow  money  in  the  name  of  the 
defaulting  authority  and  secure  it  in  proper  manner,  that  is,  upon  a 
rate. 

The  local  sanitary  authorities  are  required  by  the  act  of  1891  to 
cause  inspection  of  the  districts  to  be  made  from  time  to  time.  The 
exact  number  of  inspections  annually  are  not  specified  as  in  certain 
American  cities.  The  object  of  these  general  inspections  is  to  ascer¬ 
tain  what  nuisances  exist  and  to  secure  their  abatement.  At  any  time, 
however,  any  person  may,  and  every  sanitary  or  relieving  officer  must, 
give  notice  of  any  nuisance  coming  under  observation.  Premises 
injurious  or  dangerous  to  health,  gutters,  cisterns,  water-closets,  earth 
closets,  privies,  urinals,  cesspools,  drains,  ash-pits,  or  any  accumula¬ 
tion  so  foul  as  to  be  inimical  or  dangerous  to  health,  overcrowded 
houses,  absence  of  water  fittings,  occupied  dwellings  without  an  ade¬ 
quate  water  supply,  are,  as  regards  housing,  the  chief  nuisances. 
Upon  receipt  of  information  sanitary  authorities  serve  a  notice  on  the 
responsible  party,  or,  where  he  can  not  be  found,  upon  the  owner  or 
occupier  of  the  premises,  requiring  an  abatement  within  a  specified 
time,  and  ordering  him  to  do  whatever  work  may  be  necessary  to  pre¬ 
vent  a  recurrence.  In  all  cases  where  the  nuisance  arises  from  struc- 


CHAPTER  II. — SANITARY  LAWS. 


41 


tural  defects,  or  where  the  premises  are  unoccupied,  notice  must  be 
served  upon  the  owner.  If  the  responsible  party  is  neither  the  owner 
nor  the  occupier,  and  if  he  can  not  be  found,  the  authorities  themselves 
may  abate  it  and  execute  proper  ameliorations.  Whenever  a  medical 
officer  of  health  certifies  to  overcrowding,  the  sanitary  authority  is 
obliged  to  institute  proceedings  to  correct  the  evil.  Should  water 
fittings  be  absent  this  fact  alone  is  construed  to  render  a  house  unfit  for 
human  habitation.  Individuals  willfully  responsible  for  the  nuisance, 
if  making  default  in  complying  with  the  orders  of  the  sanitary  authori¬ 
ties,  are  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  £10  ($48.07).  Whenever 
the  responsible  party  does  not  comply  with  the  requests  made  within 
the  specified  time,  or  if  (notwithstanding  temporary  abatement)  the 
sanitary  authority  is  of  the  opinion  that  there  will  be  a  recurrence  of  the 
nuisance,  upon  its  complaint  the  petty  sessional  court  may  issue  a  sum¬ 
mary  order  either  for  abatement,  prohibition,  or  closing.  A  closing 
order  may  only  be  issued  after  the  court  has  been  satisfied  that  the 
nuisance  renders  a  dwelling  house  absolutely  unfit  for  habitation.  In 
this  case  not  only  is  the  order  issued  but  a  fine  not  exceeding  £20 
($97.33)  may  be  imposed.  Failure  to  abate  a  nuisance  carries  with  it 
a  fine  not  exceeding  20s.  ($4.87)  for  every  day  of  default.  Willful  dis¬ 
obedience  of  a  closing  order  may  be  punished  by  a  daily  fine  not 
exceeding  40s.  ($9.73)  during  the  period.  The  sanitary  authority  has 
always  the  privilege  of  entering  upon  the  premises  and  doing  whatever 
work  is  required  to  abate  or  remove  the  nuisance  itself,  but  appeal  is 
allowed  from  the  court  of  petty  sessions  to  that  of  quarter  sessions,  and 
during  the  period  of  appeal  proceedings  may  not  be  taken  nor  work 
done.  Appeal  is  restricted  to  prohibition  or  closing  orders,  or  to  such 
requisitions  as  require  structural  works.  If  the  appeal  is  shown  to 
have  been  made  merely  for  purposes  of  delay,  the  penalties  that  were 
fixed  by  the  lower  court  are  not  dispensed  with.  If  the  appeal  under 
authorization  from  the  lower  court  is  sustained,  the  sanitary  authorities 
are  liable  for  the  cost  of  abatement  and  damages.  This  provision  would 
seem  to  render  extremely  conservative  action  on  their  part  a  necessity. 
Where  two  convictions  for  overcrowding  take  place  within  three 
months,  no  matter  whether  the  parties  are  the  same  or  not,  the  petty 
sessional  court  may  order  the  premises  closed  for  so  long  as  they  deem 
necessary.  When  neither  the  party  responsible  for  the  correction  of  the 
nuisance  nor  the  owner  or  occupier  of  the  house  can  be  found,  sani¬ 
tary  authorities  may,  upon  orders  of  the  petty  sessional  court,  execute 
the  required  ameliorations.  Entry  may  be  made  on  any  inhabited 
premises  during  any  hour  of  the  day  for  purposes  of  examination  as 
to  the  existence  of  any  nuisance  liable  to  be  dealt  with  summarily. 
Where  an  order  has  been  either  neglected  or  infringed  the  premises 
may  be  entered  at  all  reasonable  hours.  Procedure  in  cases  where  the 
information  comes  from  private  parties  is  essentially  similar  to  those 
instances  where  the  sanitary  authorities  themselves  are  the  complain* 


42  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


ants.  Practically  the  only  difference  is  that  the  court  may  order  an 
examination  of  the  alleged  nuisance  by  a  constable  or  some  other 
of  its  agents. 

Sanitary  authorities  are  not  confined  to  the  petty  sessional  court, 
and  whenever  they  are  convinced  that  an  adequate  remedy  is  not  likely 
to  be  found  may  plead  directly  in  the  high  court. 

Every  sanitary  authority  is  required  to  secure  removal,  at  proper 
periods,  of  house  refuse,  and  to  have  ash-pits,  earth  closets,  privies, 
and  cesspools  emptied  and  cleansed.  Neglect  to  comply  with  these 
provisions  after  forty-eight  hours  previous  notice  renders  the  sanitary 
authority  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £20  ($97.33).  Authorized  agents 
demanding  a  fee  or  gratuity  from  occupiers  for  rendering  these  serv¬ 
ices  make  themselves  liable  to  a  further  penalty  not  exceeding  £1 
($4.87).  For  the  purpose  of  cleansing,  removal  of  refuse,  etc.,  sanitary 
authorities  must  either  employ  a  sufficient  number  of  scavengers  of 
their  own  or  make  suitable  contracts  with  outside  parties. 

All  newly  constructed  or  rebuilt  houses  must  be  provided  with  suit¬ 
able  ash-pits,  furnished  with  doors  and  coverings,  and  one  or  more 
water-closets  having  convenient  water  supply  and  suitable  apparatus 
for  flushing.  Neglect  of  this  provision  entails  a  fine  not  exceeding  £20 
($97.33).  The  sanitary  authority  shall  cause  notice  to  be  served  upon 
owners  or  occupiers  of  dwellings  without  ash-pits  or  water-closets, 
requiring  them  to  provide  the  same  under  penalty  of  a  fine  not  exceed¬ 
ing  £5  ($24.33),  and  a  further  fine  not  exceeding  40s.  ($9.73)  for  each  day 
during  the  continuance  of  the  offense.  The  sanitary  authority,  in  lieu 
of  the  fine,  may  execute  the  work  at  the  cost  of  the  house  owner. 
Exceptions  are  allowed  where  water-closets  have  been  used  in  common 
by  inmates  of  two  or  more  houses  without  detriment  to  sanitary  inter¬ 
ests.  In  cases  where  ample  sewerage  or  water  supply  is  not  available, 
a  privy  or  earth  closet  may  be  substituted.  Appeals  from  regulations 
as  regards  water-closets  may  be  made  to  the  county  council,  whose 
decision  is  final. 

The  county  council  makes  by-laws  in  respect  to  closets  of  different 
kinds,  ash-pits,  cesspools,  etc.,  whether  as  regards  old  or  new  buildings. 
The  enforcement  of  all  such  by-laws  rests  with  the  local  sanitary 
authority.  Entry  on  premises  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  water-closets,  ash-pits,  water  supply,  and  drainage  is  allowed 
at  any  reasonable  time  of  the  day  after  twenty-four  hours  previous 
notice  to  occupiers,  or,  if  the  dwelling  is  unoccupied,  to  the  owner. 
This  notice  may  be  dispensed  with  in  cases  of  emergency.  If  every¬ 
thing  is  found  in  proper  order,  the  cost  of  examination  is  borne  by  the 
sanitary  authorities,  but  where  defects  are  disclosed  expenses  must  be 
paid  by  the  offending  party.  Any  person  who  does  not  execute  the 
work  in  accordance  with  the  by-laws  of  the  county  council  and  sanitary 
authority,  or  who  rebuilds,  without  the  consent  of  the  latter,  closets, 
ash-pits,  or  cesspools  which  have  been  either  forbidden  or  ordered  to 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


43 


be  demolished,  or  who  unlawfully  discontinues  water  supply,  or  who 
destroys  any  water-closet  apparatus,  pipe,  or  connecting  works  so  that 
the  destruction  creates  a  nuisance  or  is  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health, 
is  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £10  ($48.67).  If  delinquency  contin¬ 
ues  beyond  fourteen  days,  after  proper  notice  has  been  served,  the 
party  responsible  is  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  20s.  ($4.87)  for  every 
day  during  which  the  offense  continues.  The  sanitary  authority  pos¬ 
sesses  the  alternative  of  entering  on  the  premises  and  doing  the  work 
itself  at  the  expense  of  the  offending  party.  Any  person  has  the  right 
to  appeal  to  the  county  council  from  the  prescriptions  of  local  sanitary 
authorities  in  relation  to  closets,  ash-pits,  or  cesspools.  The  penalty 
for  construction  or  repair  of  closets  and  drains  in  such  manner  as 
to  be  a  nuisance  or  injurious  or  dangerous  to  health  is  a  fine  not 
exceeding  £20  ($97.33).  If  the  party  summoned  can  prove  that  the 
offense  was  executed  by  a  servant  or  employee  without  his  knowledge 
or  connivance  and  after  having  used  his  powers  to  prevent  it,  he  is 
personally  exempt  from  the  fine,  but  the  person  actually  responsible 
for  the  mischief  is  rendered  liable  to  summary  conviction. 

The  powers  of  sanitary  authorities  over  drainage  are  quite  ample. 
Proceedings  and  penalties  in  this  regard  are  very  similar  to  those 
already  enumerated. 

As  has  been  already  noted,  an  occupied  house  without  a  sufficient 
water  supply  is  held  to  be  a  nuisance  and  may  be  summarily  dealt 
with  under  this  act.  If  a  dwelling  house  it  is  deemed  unfit  for  human 
habitation.  A  newly  constructed  or  rebuilt  house  may  not  be  occu¬ 
pied  as  a  dwelling  until  sanitary  authorities  have  certified  that  an 
ample  water  supply  exists.  Upon  failure  to  grant  this  certificate 
within  a  month  after  written  request  has  been  made  by  the  owner  of 
the  house  the  latter  may  summon  the  sanitary  authority  before  the 
petty  sessional  court  and  request  an  order  authorizing  habitation,  but 
until  the  order  is  actually  made  any  owner  who  either  occupies  or 
permits  the  house  to  be  occupied  as  a  dwelling  without  having  obtained 
this  certificate  is  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £10  ($48.G7)  and  a 
further  penalty  of  not  more  than  £1  ($4.87)  for  every  day  of  occupa¬ 
tion  until  sufficient  supply  of  water  has  been  provided.  The  imposi¬ 
tion  of  this  fine,  however,  does  not  free  the  owner  from  the  liability 
of  having  a  closing  order  served  upon  him. 

Where  the  water  supply  has  been  lawfully  cut  off  from  an  inhabited 
dwelling  house  because  of  nonpayment  of  the  water  rate,  or  for  other 
reasons,  notice  must  be  given  by  the  water  company  within  twenty-four 
hours  to  the  sanitary  authority  of  the  district.  A  fine  of  not  more 
than  £10  ($48.67)  is  levied  for  failure  to  comply  with  these  provisions* 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  sanitary  authority  to  take  proceedings  against 
any  company  in  default.  This  applies  to  every  water  company  which 
is  a  trading  company  supplying  water  for  profit. 

Sanitary  authorities  are  obligated  to  make  by-laws  the  object  of  which 
u  to  secure  cleanliness  and  freedom  from  pollution.  Any  well,  tank, 


44  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


or  cistern  used  for  storing  water,  either  for  drinking  or  domestic  pur 
poses,  which  is  so  polluted  or  likely  to  be  so  polluted  as  to  be  injurious 
or  dangerous  to  health,  may  be  closed  by  order  of  the  petty  sessional 
court  on  representation  of  the  sanitary  authority. 

Sanitary  authorities  are  compelled  to  make  and  enforce  by-laws  for 
fixing  the  number  of  occupants  in  the  house,  or  part  thereof  let  in 
lodgings,  and  to  make  suitable  regulation  for  the  separation  of  the 
sexes.  They  must  also  provide  for  the  registration  of  houses  of  this 
sort,  for  their  inspection,  for  enforcing  drainage  and  promoting  cleanli¬ 
ness  and  ventilation,  and  for  their  cleansing  and  lime  washing  at  spec¬ 
ified  times.  These  provisions  refer  to  houses  let  in  lodgings,  but  not  to 
common  lodging  houses.  The  latter  are  dealt  with  by  an  enactment 
bearing  the  date  of  1851,  and  subsequently  amended.  The  occupation 
of  underground  rooms  not  let  or  occupied  for  living  purposes  before 
the  act  of  1891  was  passed  is  specifically  prohibited  except  under  the 
following  conditions:  The  rooms  must  be  at  least  7  feet  high,  with  3 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  street.  The  walls  must  be  constructed 
with  a  proper  damp  course,  and,  if  in  contact  with  the  soil,  must  be 
effectually  secured  against  dampness  therefrom.  There  must  be  also 
outside  the  room  and  extending  along  its  entire  frontage,  6  inches 
below  the  level  of  the  floor,  an  open  paved  area  at  least  4  feet  in  width. 
This  area,  as  well  as  the  soil  immediately  below  the  room,  must  be 
effectually  drained.  If  the  room  has  a  hollow  floor,  the  space  beneath 
must  be  ventilated.  Drains  passing  under  the  room  must  be  properly 
constructed  of  gas-tight  pipe,  and  effectual  security  must  exist  against 
the  rising  of  effluvia  or  exhalations.  There  must  also  be,  appertaining 
to  the  room,  the  use  of  a  water-closet  and  ash-pit.  The  room  itself 
must  have  a  fireplace,  with  flue,  and  be  effectually  ventilated.  The 
room  must  also  have  one  or  more  windows  opening  directly  to  the 
external  air  with  a  total  area  of  at  least  one-tenth  of  its  floor  space, 
and  so  constructed  that  one-half  at  least  of  each  window  can  be 
opened,  the  opening  in  each  case  extending  to  the  top  of  the  window. 
Letting  of  underground  rooms  where  these  provisions  are  not  complied 
with  involves  a  fine  not  exceeding  £1  ($4.87)  per  day  during  the  period 
of  occupation.  All  the  foregoing  requirements  now  apply  to  all  under¬ 
ground  dwellings  which  were  erected  before  the  passing  of  the  act  of 
1891.  The  sanitary  authorities  may  dispense  with  or  modify  either 
absolutely  or  for  a  limited  time  any  of  these  requisites  which  involve 
the  structural  alteration  of  the  building,  if  they  are  of  the  opinion  that 
they  can  properly  do  so,  having  due  regard  to  the  fitness  of  the  room 
for  human  habitation,  to  the  house  accommodation  in  the  district,  to 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  and  to  other  circumstances, 
but  any  requisite  which  was  required  before  the  passing  of  this  act 
may  not  be  dispensed  with  or  modified.  The  reasons,  however,  for 
modifications  or  dispensations  must  be  properly  filed  with  the  regular 
minutes.  Appeals  from  the  decisions  of  the  sanitary  authority,  allow- 


CHAPTER  n. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


45 


ing  dispensations  or  modifications  asked  for  by  owners,  may  be  made 
to  tbe  local  government  board,  which  is  empowered  to  refuse  or  grant 
wholly  or  partially  the  demands  made.  An  underground  room  in 
which  the  night  is  passed  is  construed  to  be  a  dwelling.  An  under¬ 
ground  room  is  defined  to  be  any  room  the  surface  of  the  floor  of  which 
is  more  than  3  feet  below  the  adjoining  ground.  An  officer  of  the  sani¬ 
tary  authority,  or  any  other  person  who  has  reasonable  grounds  of  sus¬ 
picion,  may  enter  an  underground  room  for  purposes  of  inspection  at 
any  hour  of  the  day,  and  if  admission  is  refused  may  sue  for  a  warrant 
before  a  justice.  A  second  conviction  for  offenses  relating  to  the  occu¬ 
pation  of  the  same  underground  dwelling  within  three  months  per¬ 
mits  the  petty  sessional  court  to  issue  a  temporary  closing  order  or  to 
empower  the  sanitary  authority  permanently  to  close  the  dwelling  at 
their  own  cost. 

Sanitary  authorities  under  this  act  are  permitted,  with  the  consent 
of  the  local  government  board,  to  borrow  money  for  the  purpose  of  pro¬ 
viding  sanitary  conveniences,  lavatories,  and  ash-pits,  among  other 
arrangements,  for  ameliorating  the  hygienic  conditions  of  their  district. 

Medical  officers  of  health  are  required  to  be  appointed  by  every  san¬ 
itary  authority.  The  appointee  is  required  to  reside  in  the  district  in 
which  his  functions  are  exercised  or  within  1  mile  of  its  boundary. 
Sanitary  authorities  must  also  appoint  an  adequate  number  of  compe¬ 
tent  sanitary  inspectors.  If  the  local  government  board  is  satisfied  on 
complaint  of  the  county  council  that  there  has  been  failure  to  appoint 
a  sufficient  number,  it  may  order  their  employment. 

Every  sanitary  authority  must  keep  a  book  in  which  shall  be  entered 
all  complaints  as  to  nuisances  or  infringement  of  the  by  laws  or  provi¬ 
sions  of  the  public  health  act.  The  inspector  must  a  t  once  make  inves¬ 
tigation  and  report.  This  complaint  book  must  be  open  to  the  inspection 
of  any  inhabitant  of  the  district  and  to  any  authorized  officer  of  the 
county  council. 

One-half  the  salaries  of  the  medical  officers  of  health  and  sanitary 
inspectors  are  paid  by  the  county  council.  Medical  officers  of  health 
can  only  be  removed  by  the  sanitary  authority  with  the  consent  of  the 
local  government  board  or  by  the  board  itself,  acting  on  its  own  voli¬ 
tion.  After  January  1, 1895,  a  sanitary  inspector  can  only  be  appointed 
after  having  passed  an  examination  before  such  body  as  the  local  gov¬ 
ernment  board  may  provide,  showing  that  he  is  competent  to  perform 
the  duties  required  of  him. 

Persons  entering  upon  any  premises  may  be  required  to  produce 
some  written  evidence  of  their  right  to  do  so.  A  person  refusing  to 
admit  an  authorized  party  is  liable  to  a  tine  of  uot  more  than  £5 
($24.33).  Like  penalties  are  also  provided  in  cases  of  willful  obstruc¬ 
tion  to  sanitary  officers  or  persons  duly  employed  in  execution  of  the 
act,  for  the  destruction  or  defacing  of  a  by-law  or  notice  put  up  by 
the  authority  of  the  local  government  board,  county  council,  or  sanitary 


46 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


authority,  or  for  willfully  damaging  any  property  belonging  to  any  sani¬ 
tary  authority.  Should  the  occupier  of  the  premises  prevent  the  owner 
from  “obeying  or  carrying  into  effect  any  provision  of  this  act,  a  petty 
sessional  court  shall  by  order  require  such  occupier  to  permit  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  any  works  which  appear  to  the  court  necessary  for  the  purpose 
of  obeying  or  carrying  into  effect  such  provision  of  this  act;  and  if 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  service  he  fails  to  comply,  he  shall  be 
liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  £5  ($24.33)  for  every  day  of  such  non- 
compliance.”  Should  the  occupier  decline  to  disclose,  or  willfully  mis¬ 
state  the  name  and  address  of  the  owner,  a  fine  not  exceeding  £6 
($24.33)  may  be  imposed.  The  fines  required  for  offenses  against  the 
act  are  applied  by  sanitary  authorities  to  their  expenses,  except  penal¬ 
ties  to  which  they  have  themselves  submitted.  These  go  to  the  county 
council.  The  latter  body  may  not  proceed  against  the  sanitary  author¬ 
ity  except  with  the  sanction  of  the  local  government  board.  Costs  or 
expenses  against  an  owner  may  be  recovered  from  the  occupier  of  the 
premises,  but  the  latter  may  deduct  them  from  his  rent.  The  occupier 
may  not  be  charged  with  a  greater  sum  than  the  amount  of  rent  due, 
or  which  after  demand  from  him  of  the  costs  and  expenses,  and  notice 
not  to  pay  any  rent  without  first  deducting  the  same,  becomes  payable 
by  him.  The  county  council,  sanitary  authorities,  or  other  officers 
are  freed  from  all  personal  responsibility  arising  from  the  performance 
of  legal  duties.  An  appeal  may  be  had  from  the  courts  of  summary 
jurisdiction  to  the  courts  of  quarter  sessions.  Service  of  any  notice, 
order,  or  other  paper  is  deemed  to  have  been  made  upon  delivery  at 
the  usual  or  last  known  residence  in  England  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  addressed,  or  where  addressed  to  the  owner  or  occupier  of  prem¬ 
ises,  to  some  person  on  the  premises,  or,  when  no  one  lives  there,  by 
posting  upon  a  conspicuous  part  of  the  house.  Service  may  also  be 
made  through  the  mail. 

Some  slight  exceptions  are  made  in  the  application  of  this  act  to  the 
city  of  London  proper;  the  most  important  is  the  denial  of  an  appeal 
to  the  county  council.  The  county  council  has  no  authority  under  this 
act  to  proceed  in  case  of  default  of  the  commissioners  of  sewers.  The 
night  population  of  the  city  is  exceedingly  small,  so  that  this  omission 
is  not  a  matter  of  great  importance.  Respect  for  the  prerogatives  of 
the  ancient  corporation  f  rnislies,  doubtless,  the  dominating  motive  for 
the  exceptions  granted. 

The  public  health  (London)  act  of  1891  marks  an  important  increase 
of  authority  over  matters  pertaining  to  health  and  housing  by  the 
London  county  council.  The  fact  that  two  assistant  medical  officers  of 
health  have  been  appointed  since  1891  shows  that  the  council  is  grow¬ 
ing  more  and  more  the  center  of  sanitary  administration  for  London. 
Progress  in  the  future  will  be  in  the  direction  of  still  further  consoli¬ 
dation.  Already,  under  the  local  government  act  of  1888,  the  council 
pays  half  the  salaries  of  nearly  one-half  of  the  district  medical  officers 


CHAPTER  II. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


47 


of  health,  and  a  constantly  increasing  number  of  sanitary  inspectors 
come  within  the  same  provisions  of  that  act,  so  that  in  time  the  council 
will  be  paying  a  moiety  of  the  salaries  of  all  the  medical  officers  and 
sanitary  inspectors  in  the  county.  The  direction  which  efforts  are 
taking  furnishes  good  ground  for  satisfaction.  Sanitary  administra¬ 
tion  should,  above  all  things,  be  centralized.  Decentralization,  i.  e., 
splitting  up  municipalities  into  so  many  local  divisions,  is  not  merely 
fatal  to  harmonious  action,  but  offers  a  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
community. 

Ten  vestries  and  eight  district  boards  have  reelected  their  medical 
officers  of  health  under  the  public  health  act  of  1891.  The  county 
council  pays  a  moiety  of  the  salaries  of  these  functionaries. 

From  April  1,  1892,  to  March  31,  1893,  761  complaints  were  made 
to  the  county  council  in  reference  to  insanitary  conditions  or  to  fail¬ 
ures  in  sanitary  administration.  The  council,  in  such  matters,  adopts 
the  plan  of  referring  the  persons  complaining  to  the  proper  sanitary 
authority.  If  it  appears  that  the  complaint  has  already  been  made 
there  without  result,  the  council  itself  sends  a  copy  to  the  sanitary 
authority  with  the  request  that  prompt  attention  be  given.  Later, 
inspection  is  made  to  verify  the  complaint.  In  this  way  the  affair  is 
kept  under  observation  until  matters  have  been  fully  righted.  The 
guardianship  of  the  council  has  had  a  very  wholesome  effect,  stimu¬ 
lating  the  local  authorities  to  prompt  action.  In  only  two  cases  did 
the  public  health  and  housing  committee  feel  it  necessary  to  report  to 
the  full  council  that  there  had  been  undue  delay.  In  only  one  instance 
was  it  necessary  to  call  the  attention  of  the  local  government  board  to 
the  failure  of  a  sanitary  authority  to  properly  administer  the  act  of 
1891.  The  most  important  feature  of  the  public  health  act  of  1891  is 
that  medical  officers  of  health  can  not  be  discharged  by  local  sani¬ 
tary  authorities  without  the  consent  of  the  local  government  board. 
This  means  that  they  are  made  much  more  independent,  not  being 
liable  to  discharge  should  they  be  considered  by  interested  members 
of  the  vestry  as  too  zealous  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  Such 
independence  should  be  aimed  at  everywhere.  Not  broader  local 
authority  is  needed,  but  a  more  independent,  impartial,  and  untram¬ 
meled  administration. 

The  London  county  council,  in  June,  1893,  formulated  its  require¬ 
ments  in  regard  to  water-closets  and  drainage.  They  stipulate  that  one 
side  of  the  water-closet,  at  least,  must  abut  on  a  space  of  in  no  case 
less  than  100  square  feet.  No  closet  may  be  approached  directly  from 
a  living  room  or  a  store  room  for  food.  A  window  of  not  less  than  2 
square  feet  shall  open  directly  to  the  external  air.  There  must  be 
proper  ventilation  by  air-bricks,  shafts,  or  otherwise.  The  flushing 
cistern  is  to  be  separate  and  distinct  from  any  cistern  used  for  drinking 
purposes.  The  receptacle  must  be  of  nonabsorbent  material,  and  its 
quality,  like  that  of  the  apparatus,  good.  An  efficient  siphon  trap  is 
the  only  kind  permitted. 


48  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


FRANCE. 

Tlie  law  of  April  13, 1850,  upon  unhealthy  dwellings,  which  contains 
the  principal  sanitary  regulations  in  relation  to  housing,  provides  that, 
in  every  community  where  the  municipal  council  shall  have  declared  it 
necessary  at  a  special  meeting,  there  will  be  named  a  commission  charged 
with  the  duty  of  ascertaining  and  indicating  measures  indispensable 
for  the  sanitation  of  dwellings  and  accessories.  Unhealthy  dwellings 
are  those  in  such  a  condition  as  to  be  dangerous  to  the  life  or  health  of 
their  occupants. 

The  commissions  are  composed  of  from  five  to  nine  members  each. 
Each  must  include  a  physician,  and  an  architect  or  builder,  as  well  as  a 
member  of  the  public  relief  bureau  and  of  the  council  of  experts  ( conseil 
de  prud'hommes ),  where  these  institutions  exist.  The  mayor  is  the  pres¬ 
ident.  One-third  of  the  commission  is  renewed  every  two  years,  but 
members  going  out  are  reeligible  indefinitely.  At  Paris  this  body  is 
composed  of  thirty  members.  The  commission  visit  places  which  have 
been  pointed  out  as  unhealthy.  They  make  a  report  of  the  causes  and 
conditions  of  unhealthfulness  as  well  as  of  the  remedial  means  required. 
They  designate,  especially,  those  dwellings  which  are  not  susceptible  of 
being  made  healthy.  The  reports  of  the  commission  are  sent  to  the 
office  of  the  mayor,  and  a  month  is  allowed  interested  parties  in  which  to 
appear  and  take  cognizance.  At  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  plans 
and  answers  are  submitted  to  the  municipal  council,  who  determine — 

1.  The  nature  of  the  improvements  and  the  place  and  time  where 
they  are  to  be  fully  or  partially  executed. 

2.  Dwellings  which  are  not  susceptible  of  being  made  healthy. 

Interested  parties  have  recourse  against  decisions.  During  appeal 

the  work  must  be  suspended.  If  it  is  found  that  the  responsible  party 
is  the  proprietor  or  usufructuary,  the  municipal  authority  enjoins  him  to 
execute  the  necessary  work  within  a  defined  time.  If  this  is  not  done 
and  the  dwellings  continue  to  be  occupied  by  the  third  party,  the  pro¬ 
prietor  or  usufructuary  is  liable  for  a  fine  of  16  to  100  francs  ($3.09  to 
$19.30).  If  the  work  is  not  executed  within  a  year  and  the  occupancy 
of  the  third  party  continues,  the  fine  may  be  made  as  high  as  double 
the  cost  of  the  necessary  work.  If  it  is  found  that  the  dwelling  is  not 
susceptible  of  being  put  in  sanitary  condition,  the  municipal  authority 
may,  within  a  period  of  time  which  it  shall  prescribe,  provisionally 
close  the  dwelling  to  habitation.  Permanent  closure  can  only  be 
decreed  by  the  council  of  the  prefecture,  and  appeal  maybe  had  to  the 
council  of  state.  The  penalty  for  neglect  is  practically  the  same  as  in 
previous  instances,  namely,  from  16  to  100  francs  ($3.09  to  $19.30),  and 
in  case  of  a  second  offense  during  the  year  a  fine  equal  to  double  the 
rental  value  of  the  interdicted  property.  An  occupant  dispossessed  is 
debarred  from  claiming  damages  for  annulment  of  lease.  Whenever 
unhealthfulness  is  the  result  of  external  and  permanent  causes  which 


CHAPTER  n. - SANITARY  LAWS. 


49 


can  only  be  rectified  by  demolition,  the  commune  is  authorized  to 
expropriate  the  property  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  May  3,  1841, 
and  to  sell  whatever  part  is  not  needed  for  new  buildings.  The  incon¬ 
veniences  of  this  law  are  set  forth  in  four  paragraphs  a  little  further 
on.  Being  optional,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  only  8  out  of  over 
36,000  of  the  administrative  subdivisions  of  France  have  taken  advan¬ 
tage  of  it,  and  organized  commissions  on  unhealthy  dwellings.  M.  Jour- 
dan  has  prepared  an  interesting  table  of  all  cases  dealt  with  by  the 
Paris  commission  from  1850  to  1891.  The  total  represents  82,433,  of 
which  37,099  were  settled,  26,287  were  submitted  to  the  municipal 
council,  1,316  went  before  the  council  of  the  prefecture,  and  3,781  were 
cited  before  the  correctional  court. 

Comparatively  few  of  the  French  cities  have  taken  advantage  of  the 
option  offered  them  of  appointing  commissions  on  unhealthy  dwellings. 
It  is  easy  to  explain  this  fact  since  the  choice  rests  with  municipal  coun¬ 
cils.  The  elect  of  universal  suffrage  are  not  overready  to  take  part  in 
any  movement  which  may  bring  them  in  conflict  with  the  interests  of 
their  influential  constituents.  Furthermore,  the  posts  being  nonremu- 
nerative  there  is  difficulty  in  finding  men  with  sufficient  time  on  their 
hands,  or  men  far  enough  removed  from  extraneous  influences,  who  are 
competent  to  undertake  the  duties  assigned  them.  It  is  said  by  good 
authority  that  the  law  of  1850,  instead  of  responding  to  the  aim  which 
its  authors  had  in  view,  has  acted  as  a  hindrance  to  the  improvement 
of  dwellings. 

The  enactment  presents  the  following  principal  imperfections: 

1.  An  option  is  left  to  the  municipal  councils  to  create  or  not,  as  they 
may  wish,  commissions  to  look  after  unhealthy  dwellings. 

2.  It  is  practically  impossible  either  to  remedy  causes  of  existing 
unhealthfulness  in  places  which  do  not  serve  as  lodgings,  properly  called, 
but  in  which  men  pass  the  day  and  even  the  night  at  work,  such  as 
offices,  stores,  etc.,  or  to  ameliorate  unhealthy  conditions  arising  from 
the  neglect  of  tenants. 

3.  Delay  in  procedure  is  so  great  that  it  is  difficult,  within  a  space  of 
time  earlier  than  from  six  months  to  a  year,  to  dispose  of  cases  even 
where  no  opposition  is  offered.  A  delay  of  three  or  four  years,  some¬ 
times  even  more,  is  caused  by  proprietors  raising  opposition. 

4.  The  means  for  coercing  recalcitrant  proprietors  are  insufficient,  the 
commune  not  being  able  to  compel  them  to  make  the  improvements 
demanded,  or  in  default  of  this  to  execute  them  themselves. 

The  fourth  point  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  a  case  which  it  was  stated 
represented  about  the  average  time  where  proprietors  chose  to  oppose 
a  sanitary  improvement  demanded.  A  complaint  of  dampness  in  a 
particular  dwelling  was  made  to  the  prefecture  of  the  Seine,  Paris, 
August  24,  1886.  In  compliance  with  the  prescription  of  the  law,  there 
followed  twenty-two  different  communications  typifying  the  various 
steps  of  procedure,  the  last  bearing  the  date  of  June  2, 1891,  being  a 
H.  Ex.  354 - 4 


50  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


transcript  of  judgment  showing  that  the  proprietor  had  been  fined  26 
francs  ($4.83).  Thus  nearly  five  years  elapsed  from  the  time  the  first 
complaint  was  filed  until  the  affair  was  regulated  in  this  fashion.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  this  is  not  by  any  means  an  exceptional  case. 
In  one  notable  instance  thirteen  years  were  required  before  elementary 
sanitary  conditions  could  be  realized  on  the  property  of  a  notoriously 
recalcitrant  proprietor.  One  great  feature  of  delay  is  the  necessity  for 
the  municipal  council  to  take  action.  Certain  members  of  that  body  at 
Paris  in  the  past  have  been  notorious  for  smothering  cases  of  this 
kind;  indeed,  it  is  related  on  the  best  authority  that  one  of  the  local 
Solons  boasted  that,  during  the  years  he  sat  as  a  representative,  not  a 
single  case  coming  from  his  quarter  had  been  acted  upon.  A  sanitary 
law  under  which  a  large  city  has  to  be  governed,  and  which  permits 
delays  of  this  sort,  is  certainly  in  need  of  reformation,  and  yet  the 
thorough  study  and  report  made  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Martin,  Dr.  O.  du  Mesnil, 
and  M.  Jourdan  indicate  that  progress  toward  reform  is  inexplicably 
slow. 

The  decree  of  December  18, 1848,  regulates  the  creation  of  councils 
of  public  hygiene  and  salubrity.  These  are  designated  for  the  arron- 
dissement ,  and  consist  of  from  seven  to  fifteen  members.  They  are 

% 

appointed  by  the  prefect  and  serve  for  four  years,  half  retiring  bien¬ 
nially.  Their  functions  relate  particularly  to  sewers  and  to  manufac¬ 
turing  establishments.  Household  sanitation  does  not  come  within 
their  province  in  those  cities  where  commissions  on  unhealthy  dwell¬ 
ings  exist. 

There  is  in  the  chief  town  of  each  prefecture  a  departmental  council 
of  public  hygiene  and  salubrity,  consisting  of  from  seven  to  fifteen 
members,  appointed  by  the  prefect  for  four  years.  Both  of  these 
bodies  must  meet  at  least  once  every  three  months  and  are  convened 
by  the  prefect  or  the  mayor,  as  the  case  may  be.  Their  advice  is  asked 
in  relation  to  the  sanitation  of  houses  or  of  localities,  and  all  other 
questions  directly  related  to  public  health.  The  departmental  hygienic 
council  gives  advice  to  the  prefect  in  all  matters  relating  to  public 
hygiene,  where  more  than  one  arrondissement  or  the  department  as  a 
whole  is  interested. 

The  consulting  committee  on  public  hygiene  has  control  over  all  the 
work  of  the  local  councils,  and  elucidates  and  instructs  them  in  all 
questions  relating  to  sanitation.  It  is  composed  of  thirty- two  mem¬ 
bers,  of  which  eleven  are  ex  officio,  namely,  the  director  of  consular 
and  commercial  matters  under  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs;  the  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  council  of  military  health ;  the  inspector-general,  president 
of  the  council  of  marine  health ;  the  director-general  of  customs;  the 
directors  of  public  assistance  of  the  departmental  and  communal  admin¬ 
istrations  under  the  minister  of  the  interior;  the  director  of  the  general 
administration  of  public  assistance;  the  director  of  internal  commerce; 
the  inspector-general  of  the  sanitary  service;  the  inspector-general  of 


CHAPTER  II. — SANITARY  LAWS. 


51 


veterinary  schools;  and  the  architect  inspector  of  external  service  in 
the  ministry  of  commerce.  The  ministry  nominates  directly  the  other 
twenty-one  members,  eight  of  whom,  at  least,  must  be  physicians.  Tin* 
committee  meets  as  often  as  once  weekly.  Its  duties  consist  of  study¬ 
ing  and  examining  all  questions  referred  to  it  by  the  ministry,  espe¬ 
cially  those  concerning  the  marine  sanitary  police  and  quarantine 
services,  measures  required  to  afford  protection  from  and  to  combat 
epidemics,  to  ameliorate  the  hygienic  surroundings  of  manufacturing 
and  agricultural  populations,  to  regulate  vaccination,  the  water  supply 
system  of  mineral  water  establishments,  the  institution  and  organiza¬ 
tion  of  local  health  commissions,  the  salubrity  of  lodgings,  factories, 
workshops,  and  technical  questions  relating  to  the  management  of 
municipal  and  departmental  laboratories. 

BELGIUM. 

The  highest  sanitary  body  in  Belgium  is  the  superior  council  of 
hygiene.  Its  duties,  however,  are  only  consultative.  It  has  no  power 
to  enforce  regulations.  A  medical  commission  exists  for  each  province, 
but  this  also  is  without  any  executive  authority.  Each  commune  has 
its  sanitary  council  or  committee  on  salubrity,  which  is  expected 
to  look  after  the  sanitary  condition  of  houses,  etc.,  and  to  make 
appropriate  recommendations  to  the  burgomaster.  As  regards  house¬ 
hold  hygiene,  the  burgomaster  has  practically  absolute  authority. 
Where  the  town  has  2,000  inhabitants  and  more,  he  is  authorized  to 
prohibit  the  habitation  of  houses  that  are  in  bad  condition  from  defects 
of  construction  or  uncleanliness,  want  of  light,  improper  drainage,  or 
from  any  other  causes  which  may  compromise  public  health.  Before 
issuing  the  closing  order  the  burgomaster  must  request  a  report  of  the 
condition  of  these  places,  and  his  decree  sets  forth  his  reasons  in  order 
that  they  may  be  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  proprietors  and  the 
occupants.  One  month  is  allowed  for  evacuation  of  the  premises  after 
date  of  notification.  At  the  expiration  of  this  time  a  poster,  contain¬ 
ing  the  words  “House  interdicted  on  account  of  unhealthfulness,”  is 
placed  on  the  front  of  the  building.  Wherever  proprietors  commence 
making  repairs  and  are  unable  to  execute  them  within  thirty  days  fur¬ 
ther  delay  is  accorded.  The  burgomaster  derives  his  authority  by 
virtue  of  a  decision  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  1870.  In  his  quality  as 
chief  of  police  he  is  charged  with  the  execution  of  all  regulations 
relating  to  security  and  public  health.  The  burgomaster  and  com¬ 
munal  sanitary  authorities,  however,  are  not  as  a  rule  very  active.  It 
can  be  said  that  the  former  official  has  never  abused  the  absolute  power 
which  the  law  gives  him. 

The  committees  of  patronage,  which  were  called  into  existence  by 
the  housing  enactment  of  1889,  are  meant  to  stimulate  the  communal 
authorities  to  a  stricter  observance  of  their  duties.  They  have  no 
executive  powers,  however,  nor  can  they  enter  any  premises  without 


52  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


the  consent  of  the  occupants.  By  bringing  pressure  to  bear  upon  the 
communal  commissions  of  salubrity  and  upon  the  burgomaster,  they 
are  able  to  accomplish  some  good. 

In  many  leading  Belgian  towns  certain  prescriptions,  borrowed  from 
the  French  law  of  1848,  have  found  their  place  in  municipal  policy. 

Their  repetition  would  be  superfluous. 

* 

BRUSSELS. 

The  health  authority  of  the  Belgian  capital  is  the  bureau  of  hygiene. 
It  was  founded  in  1874  and  was  one  of  the  first  institutions  of  the  kind 
created  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Among  its  other  functions,  it 
examines  plans  of  buildings  from  the  hygienic  standpoint,  deals  with 
nuisances,  and  undertakes  all  technical  and  administrative  work  in 
relation  to  public  health. 

Overcrowding  is  considered  a  nuisance  and  is  dealt  with  accordingly.  * 
Every  room  with  a  cubic  air  capacity  of  less  than  16  meters  (565  cubic 
feet)  per  person  is  considered  by  sanitary  regulation  as  affording  too 
little  space.  The  desirable  minimum  for  the  height  of  ceilings  is  pre¬ 
scribed  as  2.80  meters  (9.2  feet). 

GERMANY. 

Sanitary  administration  in  Prussia,  as  in  all  German  states,  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  police  authorities.  The  latter  are  assisted  by  the 
municipal  physician,  and  in  cities  of  over  5,000  inhabitants,  by  the 
so-called  sanitary  commission,  which  is  composed  of  representatives  of 
the  city  government,  physicians,  and  the  chief  of  local  police,  who  is 
the  presiding  officer.  The  duties  of  this  commission  are  advisory. 
Commissions  have  not  been  everywhere  organized.  Their  calling 
together  depends  upon  the  chief  of  police,  and  they  have  no  power  of 
initiation.  A  real  medical  officer  of  health,  in  the  American  or  English 
acceptation  of  the  term,  does  not  seem  to  exist  in  Germany.  Concen¬ 
tration  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  police  leads  to  personal  rather 
than  technical  oversight.  In  Berlin  if  a  house  proprietor  finds  any  of 
his  tenants  maintaining  dwellings  in  a  filthy  state  he  is  bound  to  warn 
them  to  clean  up,  and  if  they  fail  to  comply,  to  turn  them  out  without 
any  further  ceremony.  Should  the  landlord  neglect  his  duty,  an  officer 
of  the  sanitary  department  will  make  a  visit  upon  complaint  of  neigh¬ 
bors  and,  if  he  finds  the  house  filthy,  clean  it  at  the  landlord’s  expense. 
This  method  of  dealing  with  persons  of  uncleanly  habits  is  pretty  effec¬ 
tual  in  preventing  the  upgrowth  of  slums. 


CHAPTER  III. . 


EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES. 


S3 


CHAPTER  III. 

EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES. 


When  houses  or  neighborhoods  become  irremediably  bad,  the  only 
logical  thing  to  do  is  to  wipe  them  out  of  existence.  It  is  true  this 
form  of  procedure  is  costly,  but  late  awakenings  are  always  expensive. 
The  supreme  necessity  of  safeguarding  public  health  is  a  sufficient 
motive  for  action,  but  the  welfare  of  individual  dwellers  is  also  happily 
subserved.  The  right  of  expropriation  is  a  weapon  of  last  resort,  and 
perhaps  alone  can  efficiently  check  the  unscrupulous  rapacity  which 
allows  property  to  degenerate  into  an  incurably  unhealthy  state. 

England,  in  the  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890,  has  fur¬ 
nished  the  world  with  a  model  of  procedure  which  ought  to  find  imitation 
everywhere.  Its  main  provisions  appear  in  the  subjoined  summary. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

• 

The  public  health  acts,  both  for  the  whole  of  England  and  for 
the  city  of  London,  deal  with  the  sanitation  of  individual  houses. 
Neither  of  them  contain  provisions  for  dealing  with  insanitary  areas. 
The  condition  of  houses  in  certain  districts  becomes  sometimes  so  hope¬ 
lessly  bad  that  there  is  no  remedy  except  to  tear  down  the  dwellings 
and  build  anew.  In  1868  a  measure  was  passed  which,  with  subsequent 
amendments  in  1879  and  1882,  is  known  as  the  Torrens  act,  making 
provision  for  the  improvement  or  demolition  of  houses  inhabited  by 
working  people  and  for  the  building  of  improved  dwellings.  The 
sphere  of  operation  included  London  and  all  the  urban  sanitary  dis¬ 
tricts  of  England.  The  principle  of  expropriation  for  purposes  of 
public  utility  was  admitted,  but  individual  tenements  or  small  groups 
of  houses  were  all  that  were  included  under  the  acts. 

The  first  laws  to  deal  with  comprehensive  sanitary  areas  were  a  series 
known  as  the  artisans’  dwellings  improvement  acts,  passed  in  1875, 
1879,  and  1882.  These  laws,  generally  known  as  the  Cross  acts,  from 
the  name  of  their  framer,  applied  to  London  and  English  urban  sani¬ 
tary  districts  having  a  population  of  25,000  or  more.  Where  areas  had 
become  insanitary,  either  from  irremediable  structural  defects  in  the 
dwellings  themselves,  or  where  houses  were  so  badly  situated  with 
reference  to  one  another  that  it  was  impossible  to  introduce  proper 
sanitary  improvements,  these  laws  permitted  compulsory  purchase  by 
the  local  authority  of  the  property  affected  and  the  inauguration  of 
proper  reconstruction. 


56 


56  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

HOUSING  OF  THE  WORKING  CLASSES  ACT  OF  1890. 

In  1890  all  previous  enactments  were  repealed  and  the  comprehen¬ 
sive  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  substituted.  It  was  made 
general  in  its  application  to  other  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  as 
well  as  England  and  Wales. 

The  first  part  of  this  law  relates  to  unhealthy  areas,  and  is  limited  in 
its  application  to  cities  and  towns.  Rural  sanitary  districts  are  excepted. 
It  provides  that  whenever  an  official  representation  is  made  to  the  local 
sanitary  authority  that  “within  a  certain  area  in  the  district  of  such 
authority  either  any  houses,  courts,  or  alleys  are  unfit  for  human  habi¬ 
tation,  or  the  narrowness,  closeness,  and  bad  arrangement,  or  the  bad 
condition  of  the  streets  and  houses  or  groups  of  houses  within  such 
area,  or  the  want  of  light,  air,  ventilation,  or  proper  conveniences,  or 
any  other  sanitary  defects,  or  one  or  more  of  such  causes,  are  dangerous 
or  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  either  of  the  buildings  in 
the  said  area  or  of  the  neighboring  buildings;  and  that  the  evils  con¬ 
nected  with  such  houses,  courts,  or  alleys,  and  the  sanitary  defects  in 
such  area  can  not  be  effectually  remedied  otherwise  than  by  an  improve¬ 
ment  scheme  for  the  rearrangement  and  reconstruction  of  the  streets 
and  houses  within  such  area,  or  of  some  of  such  streets  or  houses,  the 
local  authority  shall  take  such  representation  into  their  consideration, 
and  if  satisfied  of  the  truth  thereof,  and  of  the  sufficiency  of  their 
resources,  shall  pass  a  resolution  to  the  effect  that  such  area  is  an 
unhealthy  area,  and  that  an  improvement  scheme  ought  to  be  made  in 
respect  of  such  area,  and  after  passing  such  resolution  they  shall  forth¬ 
with  proceed  to  make  a  scheme  for  the  improvement  of  such  area.” 
The  official  representation  must  be  made  by  the  medical  officer  of 
health,  who  makes  his  inspection  upon  the  complaint  of  two  justices 
of  the  peace  or  twelve  taxpayers.  Should  he  fail  in  his  duty,  the  com¬ 
plainants  may  appeal  to  the  local  government  board,  or  if  the  area  is  in 
London,  to  the  home  office.  The  local  authorities,  in  connection  with  their 
scheme,  must  submit  maps,  particulars,  and  estimates.  They  may  exclude 
any  portion  of  the  area  or  include  contiguous  territory,  as  their  judgment 
may  dictate.  Proper  sanitary  arrangements  must  be  provided,  and 
also  (and  this  is  a  very  important  fact  to  note)  accommodations  for  the 
working  classes  displaced  by  the  proposed  plan.  The  scheme  must 
distinguish  the  lands  proposed  to  be  taken  compulsorily.  Compulsory 
purchase  need  not  be  resorted  to  if  the  owner  of  the  freehold  confers 
with  the  local  authority  and  makes  the  required  ameliorations  under 
the  superintendence  and  control  of  the  local  authority.  The  scheme, 
when  formulated,  is  publicly  advertised,  and  notice  is  given  to  owners 
and  occupiers.  It  is  then  laid  before  the  local  government  board  or 
home  office,  as  the  case  may  be,  whose  duty  it  is  to  make  a  local 
inquiry.  If  approval  is  given,  the  appropriate  organ  of  government 
submits  the  scheme  to  Parliament  for  confirmation  by  special  enact¬ 
ments.  If  there  is  opposition,  reference  is  made  to  a  committee  of  either 


CHAPTER  III. - EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  57 


House  of  Parliament  and  costs  are  awarded  there  against  promoters  or 
opposers  according  as  the  opposition  is  considered  to  have  been  jus¬ 
tified  or  not.  Wherever  the  local  authorities  decline  to  act  upon  an 
official  representation  they  must  file  their  reasons  with  the  confirming 
body,  who  will  immediately  direct  the  holding  of  an  investigation. 

If  the  scheme  relates  to  Loudon,  a  statement  must  be  made  of  the 
provisions  for  accommodating  as  many  persons  of  the  working  classes 
as  may  be  displaced  either  within  the  area  or  immediately  outside,  unless 
the  confirming  power  shall  be  satisfied  that  equally  convenient  accom¬ 
modation  is  offered  elsewhere.  Should  special  circumstances  exist,  only 
one-half  of  the  persons  displaced  need  be  provided  for.  In  any  other 
city  outside  of  London  the  local  government  board  may  require  that 
displaced  parties,  working  people,  may  be  accommodated  either  within 
or  without  the  area  under  consideration. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  special  care  is  taken  by  this  law  of  the 
housing  of  working  people.  All  undue  hardship  accompanying  their 
displacement  is  effectually  guarded  against.  As  working  people  can 
not  be  displaced  without  more  or  less  inconvenience,  cordial  recognition 
is  given  to  the  necessity  of  their  being  properly  cared  for  within  the 
district  which,  from  reasons  of  contiguity  to  employment  or  special 
facilities  of  access,  they  have  chosen  to  make  their  residence.  In  this 
respect  the  act  is  in  a  measure  unique.  These  provisions  furnish  also 
the  explanation  of  the  fact  that  some  English  cities  in  undertaking  the 
improvement  of  insanitary  areas  have  built  and  rented  house  accom¬ 
modations  for  working  people.  These  requirements  have  been  followed, 
not  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  in  socialistic  schemes,  but  with  the 
idea  of  recognizing  the  justice  of  the  workingman’s  necessity  of  being 
near  his  place  of  toil.  In  almost  every  instance,  if  not  in  every  case, 
steps  have  first  been  taken  to  induce  private  parties  to  purchase  the 
land  and  build  suitable  dwellings.  When  these  efforts  have  failed, 
after  a  threefold  attempt  has  been  made,  as  in  London,  the  municipali¬ 
ties  themselves  intervene  to  fulfill  the  mandatory  provisions  of  the  law. 
Individuals  and  building  companies  have  usually  asserted  that  the 
requirements  as  to  new  buildings  were  such  as  to  preclude  the  possibility 
of  proper  financial  return  upon  the  investment.  In  many  instances  at 
least  the  land  has  been  offered  at  a  figure  from  which  the  cost  of  demo¬ 
lition  has  been  eliminated.  This  practice,  which  seems  entirely  equita¬ 
ble,  is  based  on  the  view  that  the  whole  cost  of  improvement  should  not 
appear  in  the  rent  charged  to  future  tenants.  The  expropriation  and 
demolition  of  insanitary  areas  entail  benefit  to  the  entire  community, 
and  it  is  but  fair  that  the  community  as  a  whole  should  bear  a  moderate 
portion  of  the  cost. 

A  previous  enactment  covers  a  class  of  cases  where  displacement  of 
working  people  is  caused  by  other  than  sanitary  reasons.  Pressure 
upon  metropolitan  centers  particularly,  for  the  construction  of  railways 
or  the  erection  of  terminal  facilities,  has  often  been  fraught  with  unfa¬ 
vorable  residential  consequences.  Hence  the  responsible  party  was 


58  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


made  liable  for  providing  within  a  specified  time  for  a  portion  of  the  dis¬ 
possessed  inhabitants.  Solicitude  of  this  sort  is  both  wise  and  salutary. 

After  the  improvement  scheme  has  been  confirmed,  the  local  authori¬ 
ties  are  empowered  to  sell  or  lease  the  land  acquired  to  any  person  who 
undertakes  to  carry  out  the  stipulations  enjoined.  Local  authorities 
themselves  may  only  engage  in  rebuilding  with  the  sanction  of  the 
local  government  board.  The  price  paid  for  land  must  be  a  fair  market 
value  as  assessed  under  the  land  clauses  acts,  no  allowance  being  made 
because  the  purchase  is  compulsory.  Where  nuisances  have  existed, 
deduction  is  made  for  the  sum  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  spend 
for  abatement  or  to  put  the  buildings  into  repair.  Where  the  premises 
are  unfit  for  human  habitation,  the  compensation  covers  simply  the 
value  of  the  land  and  materials.  The  lands  required  are  to  be  purchased 
either  by  mutual  agreement  or  upon  arbitration.  Lands  owned  by  the 
local  authority  may  be  used  for  providing  accommodations  to  displaced 
workmen,  or  if  an  insufficiency  of  accommodation  of  this  sort  exists, 
suitable  sites  may  be  purchased.  Expenses  of  improvement  schemes 
are  defrayed  either  from  local  taxation  or  from  special  loans.  There 
exists  in  England  a  body  known  as  the  public  works  loan  commission, 
and  this  is  the  source  from  which  borrowed  money  may  be  obtained 
upon  recommendation  of  the  confirming  authority.  The  period  of  repay¬ 
ment  is  fixed  at  fifty  years  as  a  maximum.  Three  and  one-half  per  cent 
is  the  interest  charged  upon  money  borrowed  from  the  public  works 
loan  commissioners. 

Part  II  of  the  act  of  1890  deals  with  unhealthy  dwelling  houses. 
The  district  medical  officer  of  health  is  enjoined  to  report  to  the  local 
sanitary  authority  any  places  which  appear  to  be  in  so  bad  a  condition 
as  to  be  unfit  for  habitation.  The  initiative  may  also  be  taken  by  any 
four  householders  living  in  or  near  the  same  street  where  the  property 
complained  of  is  situated.  Should  the  local  sanitary  authority  allow 
three  months  to  pass  without  action  the  petitioners  may  bring  the 
matter  to  the  attention  of  the  local  government  board.  Local  authori¬ 
ties  must  cause  from  time  to  time  an  inspection  of  their  district  to  be 
made  in  order  to  see  if  there  is  any  dwelling  house  unfit  for  habitation, 
and  where  such  is  found  they  must  take  proceedings  for  closing  against 
the  owner  or  occupier.  The  magistrate  in  such  cases  is  empowered  to 
make  a  closing  order  and  impose  a  fine  not  exceeding  £20  ($97.33). 
Where  such  an  order  has  been  issued  a  delay  of  not  less  than  seven 
.  days  is  accorded  to  the  tenant  in  which  to  move  out  at  the  expense  of 
the  owner.  Whenever  proper  diligence  is  not  exercised  to  put  a  closed 
house  in  a  habitable  state  the  local  authority  may  determine  to 
demolish  it.  Due  notice  must  be  served  upon  the  owner  so  that  he 
shall  have  an  opportunity  of  appearing  or  being  heard.  If  the  owner 
does  not  undertake  the  task  of  rendering  the  premises  habitable  him¬ 
self,  and  if  after  a  hearing  it  is  still  thought  advisable  to  order  demo¬ 
lition,  the  local  authorities  may  proceed  to  act.  An  appeal  against  an 
order  of  the  local  authority  is  allowed  to  the  court  of  quarter  sessions. 


CHAPTER  HI. — EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  59 

• 

Where  the  owner  decides  to  undertake  the  improvements  himself  he  is 
entitled  to  receive  what  is  known  as  a  charging  order;  that  is,  an 
annuity  of  6  per  cent  on  the  amount  expended,  which  is  allowed  to  run 
for  thirty  years.  Where  a  building  exists  which,  itself,  while  quite  fit 
for  habitation,  is  so  situated  that  it  stops  ventilation  or  otherwise  makes 
or  conduces  to  make  other  buildings  to  be  in  a  condition  unfit  for  habita¬ 
tion,  or  dangerous  or  injurious  to  health,  or  prevents  the  correction  of 
nuisances,  the  medical  officer  of  health  makes  report  to  the  local 
sanitary  authority,  who,  after  inquiry  and  giving  hearing  to  the  owner, 
decides  on  the  expediency  of  tearing  it  down.  Should  the  affirmative 
view  be  taken  an  appeal  is  allowed  the  owner  to  the  court  of  quarter 
sessions.  If  the  court  of  quarter  sessions  decides  against  the  appeal 
the  owner  may,  if  he  chooses,  within  a  month  of  the  day  of  notice, 
retain  the  land,  receiving  compensation  for  the  ^uilding.  If  the  owner 
does  not  so  elect  the  local  authorities  then  proceed  to  acquire  the  prop¬ 
erty  either  by  purchase  or  condemnation  and  tear  down  the  building. 
Where  the  land  is  retained  no  obstructive  or  dangerous  building  can 
be  erected.  Local  authorities  may  use  land  acquired  in  this  manner 
for  purposes  of  parks  or  highways,  they  may  dispose  of  it  for  the 
erection  of  dwellings  for  the  working  classes,  they  may  exchange  it, 
or  they  may  build  upon  it  themselves.  All  claims  for  compensation  in 
cases  of  disagreement  are  settled  by  arbitration,  as  with  the  improve¬ 
ment  of  insanitary  areas. 

Local  sanitary  authorities  are  obliged  to  make  a  report  every  year  to 
the  local  government  board  of  what  has  been  done  with  a  view  of  car¬ 
rying  into  effect  the  purposes  of  this  part  of  the  act.  County  councils 
have  the  authority,  where  vestry  or  district  boards  in  the  administra¬ 
tive  county  of  London,  the  local  board  of  Woolwich,  or  rural  sanitary 
authorities  fail  to  perform  their  duties  in  respect  to  this  part  of  the  act, 
to  execute  the  necessary  works  themselves  and  charge  the  expenses 
incurred  to  the  appropriate  local  bodies.  These  sums  are  considered 
simple  contract  debts  from  the  district  bodies  to  the  county  council. 

Part  III  of  the  enactment  of  1890  relates  to  providing  lodging  houses 
for  working  people,  and  is  made  applicable  both  to  urban  and  rural  dis¬ 
tricts.  The  expression  lodging  houses  includes  here  separate  houses  or 
cottages,  whether  containing  one  or  several  tenements.  In  the  rural 
districts  the  consent  of  the  county  council  is  required  before  any  plan 
can  be  carried  into  execution.  The  county  council  must  first  cause  an 
inquiry  to  be  made  as  to  whether  the  accommodation  is  absolutely  neces¬ 
sary  and  whether  there  is  no  likelihood  of  it  being  otherwise  provided. 
Acquisition  of  land  may  be  made  under  the  public  health  act  of  1875, 
and  buildings  may  be  erected  thereon  or  existing  constructions  altered 
to  become  lodgings  for  working  people.  Local  authorities  may  sell  any 
land  vested  in  them  and  use  the  proceeds,  or  exchange  any  such  lands 
for  lands  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  this  part  of  the  act,  with 
the  consent  of  the  local  government  board  or  the  county  council.  They 


60  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

• 

may  also  purchase  or  lease  existing  lodging  houses.  The  management 
and  control  of  all  lodging  houses,  either  established  or  acquired  by  local 
authorities,  must  be  vested  in  them.  Receiving  poor  relief,  either  per¬ 
sonally  or  through  one’s  wife  or  husband,  except  on  account  of  accident 
or  temporary  illness,  constitutes  a  bar  to  further  tenancy.  The  charges 
are  fixed  and  the  by-laws  made  by  the  local  authorities.  Expenses 
incurred  by  a  local  authority  in  the  execution  of  this  part  of  this  act 
are  borne  in  London  by  the  dwelling  house  improvement  fund ;  mother 
urban  communities  as  part  of  the  general  expenses  in  the  execution  of 
the  public  health  acts;  and  in  rural  districts  as  a  special  obligation 
incurred  in  executing  the  public  health  acts.  If  it  is  found  that  any 
lodging  houses,  after  seven  years,  dating  from  their  acquisition  or 
erection,  are  not  necessary  or  are  too  expensive,  they  may  be  sold. 
Any  railway  company4  or  dock  or  harbor  company,  or  any  other  com¬ 
pany,  society,  or  association  established  for  trading  or  manufacturing 
purposes  and  employing  persons  of  the  working  class,  is  granted  the 
authority  to  build  houses  for  such  persons  in  their  employment.  In 
order  to  encourage  enterprise  of  this  sort  the  public  works  loan  com¬ 
missioners  are  authorized  to  lend  money,  repayable  within  a  period  of 
forty  years,  to  companies  or  to  private  owners  of  land,  not  exceeding 
one-half  of  the  value  of  the  estate.  The  rate  of  interest  is  fixed  by 
the  commissioners  of  the  treasury,  but  may  not  be  less  than  3 £  per  cent. 
Lodging  houses  must  at  all  times  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  local 
authorities  or  their  agents.  This  part  of  the  act  has  to  be  adopted  by 
the  sanitary  authorities  before  it  comes  in  force. 

Part  IV  reveals  certain  modifications  in  the  application  of  the  act. 
For  instance,  where  an  unhealthy  area  is  found  in  London  which  does 
not  include  more  than  ten  houses  the  county  council  is  not  authorized 
to  take  proceedings  based  on  the  official  representation,  but  it  must 
direct  its  medical  officer  of  health  to  present  the  case  to  the  appropriate 
local  authority  under  Part  II  of  this  enactment. 

Any  sale,  lease,  or  exchange  of  land  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  dwell¬ 
ings  for  working  people  may  be  made  at  the  best  price  obtainable  for 
this  purpose.  Even  if  a  higher  price  is  offered  for  another  purpose,  it 
must  not  be  accepted.  Wherever  a  local  authority  sells  land  acquired 
for  any  of  the  purposes  of  the  act,  the  proceeds  may  be  applied  for  any 
purpose,  including  repayment  of  borrowed  money,  for  which  capital 
money  may  be  applied,  and  which  is  approved  by  the  local  government 
board.  Members  of  a  local  authority  or  county  council  in  any  way  inter¬ 
ested  in  property  to  be  dealt  with  in  any  manner  under  the  provisions 
of  the  act  of  1890  are  disqualified  from  voting  with  respect  to  the  prop¬ 
erty  in  question. 

The  broad  principles  of  the  act  apply  to  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
The  modifications  introduced  relate  chiefly  to  the  procedure  and  desig¬ 
nation  of  officials  charged -with  the  execution. 

The  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890  is  not  an  original 


CHAPTER  III. - EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  61 

piece  of  legislation.  It  contains  few,  if  any,  principles  which  were  not 
already  incorporated  in  English  law.  It  represents  a  consolidation  of 
the  numerous  special  enactments  previously  in  existence,  and  so,  natur¬ 
ally,  provides  in  its  closing  clauses  for  their  repeal.  There  are  slight 
simplifications  of  procedure,  but  its  chief  characteristic  is  fixing  the 
responsibility  upon  owners  for  the  sanitary  condition  of  their  property. 
Wherever  a  single  insanitary  house  is  found  the  owner  is  allowed  the 
initiative  in  providing  necessary  ameliorations.  Should  he  fail  to 
satisfy  the  sanitary  authorities  they  themselves  undertake  the  work  in 
the  manner  previously  described.  Single  houses,  small  groups,  and 
large  areas  are  all  provided  for.  Checks  against  awarding  exorbitant 
damages  in  cases  of  expropriation  have  wisely  been  introduced. 

One  of  the  great  merits  of  this  law  is  that  it  provides  for  the  acqui¬ 
sition  of  slum  property  without  having  to  pay  unreasonable  sums  for 
it.  Inability  to  do  this  greatly  hampered  the  operation  of  the  previous 
artisans’  and  laborers’  dwellings  acts.  A  statement  submitted  by  the 
metropolitan  board  of  works  to  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  home 
department  in  1879  gives  an  instance  of  inordinate  compensation.  It 
mentions  a  typical  case  which  occurred  in  the  Great  Wild  street  area, 
where  the  property  was  in  such  a  condition  as  to  menace  public  health.  * 
If  this  fact  had  been  given  due  consideration,  as  it  would  be  under  the 
law  of  1890,  the  property  would  have  been  valued  at  £500  ($2,433.25), 
while  it  was  actually  purchased  by  arbitration  for  £3,500  ($17,032.75). 
Taxpayers  were  thus  saddled  with  heavy  charges  for  the  benefit  of 
persons  whose  neglect  required  the  interposition  of  public  authority, 
and  with  the  further  effect  that  owners  of  houses  occupied  by  poor 
people  were  encouraged  to  be  careless  of  sanitary  conditions.  Under 
these  previous  enactments  the  actual  experience  was  that  almost  as 
much  had  to  be  paid  for  the  worst  class  of  property  as  where  no 
sanitary  necessity  existed  for  destruction. 

The  provision  of  English  law  requiring  rehousing  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  expropriated  sites  is  an  eminently  just  and  wholly  admirable 
requirement. 

Conditions  as  to  rentals  charged  may  be  incorporated,  otherwise 
the  people  are  at  the  mercy  of  speculative  builders.  Furthermore,  the 
community  will  find  that,  if  buildings  are  built  by  speculative  builders 
upon  land  expropriated  for  sanitary  purposes  by  the  city,  the  com¬ 
munity  has  not  been  a  gainer  in  the  end,  for  the  reason  that  surround¬ 
ing  localities  become  overcrowded,  and  very  soon  another  pest  spot  is 
created  even  worse  than  the  one  which  was  displaced.  It  is  seriously 
open  to  question  whether  or  not  the  municipality  must  not,  in  the  inter¬ 
ests  of  justice,  here  intervene.  Certainly  it  must  restrict  rents  and 
guarantee  sanitary  features. 

The  municipality  is  justified  in  building  on  ground  thus  acquired, 
because  the  benefits  of  the  expropriation  are  preserved  to  the  tax¬ 
payers,  and  evils  incident  to  overcrowding  and  the  upgrowth  of  slums 
are  prevented. 


62  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  act  of  1890  is  by  no  means  socialistic  in  character,  as  the  per¬ 
mission  to  municipalities  to  build  houses  for  working  people  and 
operate  them  on  their  own  account  would  seem  at  first  glance  to  indi¬ 
cate.  The  consent  of  the  local  government  board  is  an  essential  pre¬ 
liminary  to  this  form  of  activity.  Efforts  to  dispose  of  the  land  to 
private  .parties  or  to  building  companies  must  first,  in  every  instance, 
be  made. 

This  law  is  a  sanitary  measure  rather  than  an  enactment  to  encour¬ 
age  the  erection  of  houses  for  working  people.  The  only  provision  for 
the  latter  is  that  permitting  the  loan  of  money  at  a  low  rate  of  interest, 
upon  security  which  is  unquestionable,  to  trading  and  manufacturing 
companies  employing  persons  of  the  working  class.  In  this  respect  it 
differs  materially  in  general  characteristics  from  legislation  on  the 
continent,  particularly  in  Belgium.  The  law  is  distinctly  a  measure  of 
protection  and  only  incidentally  one  of  social  advance.  The  moral  to 
be  derived  from  its  consideration  is  that  an  expensive  awakening  must 
come  sooner  or  later  to  all  communities  where  fundamental  sanitary 
requisites  in  dwelling  construction  have  been  neglected.  This  legisla¬ 
tion  gives  evidence  that  the  interests  of  property  will  not  henceforth  be 
*  considered  paramount  to  those  of  human  life. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  EXPROPRIATION. 

The  greatest  objection  to  the  expropriation  of  insanitary  property  is 
the  cost.  A  city,  in  clearing  away  insanitary  dwellings,  must  be  pre¬ 
pared  to  sink  the  difference  between  the  price  of  the  land  and  the 
buildings  torn  down  and  the  commercial  value  of  the  land.  If  this  is 
not  done  there  is  little  chance  of  making  a  scheme  pay.  The  cost  of 
providing  the  site  of  Victoria  Square  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Liverpool, 
was  £3  ($14.60)  a  square  yard.  The  corporation  estimated  the  commer¬ 
cial  value  of  it  at  £1  2s.  6d.  ($5.47)  a  square  yard.  The  justification 
offered  for  this  loss  on  the  part  of  the  corporation  is  that  it  would  be 
unfair  to  make  the  workingman  pay  for  a  sanitary  improvement  in  which 
all  alike  participated.  The  cost  of  expropriation  has  been  largely 
influenced  by  the  procedure  followed.  Under  the  Torrens  and  Cross 
acts  it  was  exceedingly  expensive,  and  undue  advantages  were  per¬ 
mitted  to  landlords.  The  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890  to 
a  large  extent  remedies  these  defects. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  any  improvement  scheme,  account  should 
always  be  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  first  cost  will  ultimately  be  reduced 
by  the  taxes  upon  the  increased  values  of  property  on  expropriated 
territory  and  in  the  immediate  neighborhood. 

Clearances  for  sanitary  purposes  are  too  infrequent.  Is  it  not  far 
better  to  turn  people  out,  even  with  great  inconvenience  to  themselves, 
than  to  let  them  stay  in  old  buildings  and  fall  into  bad  health  and 
unfortunate  habits?  That  this  primarily  affects  the  value  of  individ¬ 
uals  to  the  community  as  a  whole  is  evident.  Undoubtedly  injustice 


CHAPTER  III. - EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  63 


as  well  as  inconvenience  may  be  wrought  to  inhabitants  of  insanitary 
areas  if  tearing  down  is  done  injudiciously  or  too  rapidly  without  some 
provision  being  made  for  accommodation  in  localities  thought  by  work¬ 
ing  people  to  be  desirable  for  residence.  Advance  in  rents  is  almost 
sure  to  follow  in  such  cases. 

Expropriation  is  more  often  necessary  where  the  ground-rent  system 
prevails.  The  reason  is,  that  owners  of  houses  upon  which  the  lease 
has  nearly  expired  have  no  incentive  to  keep  them  in  good  repair. 
They  consequently  become  during  the  latter  years  of  the  lease  a  men¬ 
ace  to  health.  It  is  for  this  reason  more  important  that  complete  powers 
of  expropriation  should  be  enjoyed  by  European  than  by  American 
municipalities. 

What  becomes  of  the  dispossessed  t  The  effects  of  expropriation  in 
producing  overcrowding  in  side  streets  have  been  very  greatly  exagger¬ 
ated.'  A  little  care,  however,  must  be  exercised.  It  is  better  to  pro¬ 
ceed  with  any  large  undertaking  by  degrees  rather  than  to  attempt 
everything  at  once.  The  London  county  council  in  1892  having  to 
provide  for  732  tenants  displaced  from  a  portion  of  the  Boundary  street 
area  was  able  to  show  that  412  found  rooms  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile, 
226  within  half  a  mile,  67  within  a  mile,  and  only  37  at  a  greater  dis¬ 
tance.  A  register  of  vacant  tenements  within  a  half  mile  was  kept,  and 
displaced  tenants  were  referred  to  proper  localities. 

An  inquiry  in  regard  to  people  displaced  from  certain  quarters  was 
made  not  long  ago  in  Brussels.  Two  hundred  and  fifty-five  tenants, 
235  of  whom  were  working  people,  were  dispossessed  because  of  house 
demolition.  Eighty-seven  found  accommodation  within  300  meters  (328 
yards)  of  the  expropriated  quarter,  108  from  600  to  800  meters  (666  to 
875  yards)  distant,  46  in  different  quarters  of  the  city,  10  in  the  out¬ 
skirts  of  Brussels,  and  4  in  suburban  communities.  The  remarkable 
tendency  to  find  accommodation  near  old  quarters  is  thus  exemplified. 
Seventy- six  per  cent  were  rehoused  within  800  meters  (875  yards)  of 
their  original  home. 

It  would  be  futile  to  deny  that  large  expropriations  have  resulted  in 
overcrowding  side  streets  in  the  vicinity.  This  fact  is  incontestably 
proved  by  the  experience  of  Paris  in  piercing  the  city  with  her  magnifi¬ 
cent  boulevards  and  in  the  enormous  displacements  which  took  place 
in  London  during  the  construction  of  the  Victoria  embankment  and 
the  new  law  courts.  There  are  other  instances,  however,  to  show  that 
comparatively  large  works  may  be  conducted  without  this  unfortunate 
feature  where  sufficient  care  is  taken,  and  work  proceeds  more  slowly. 

In  Paris  there  is  no  compulsory  provision  for  housing  displaced  people 
as  in  London;  consequently  there  has  been  tremendous  overcrowding 
of  side  streets  along  the  great  boulevards  which  were  run  through 
old  and  insanitary  quarters. 


64  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

SOME  RESULTS  OF  EXPROPRIATION. 

Expropriations  for  sanitary  purposes  have  been  carried  on  in  nearly 
all  the  large  cities  of  Great  Britain.  A  brief  reference  is  made  to  a 
few  of  the  more  important,  while  special  attention  is  given  to  the 
experience  of  Glasgow  as  being  thoroughly  representative. 

EDINBURGH. 

In  Edinburgh  a  trust  was  created  under  the  improvement  act  of  1867. 
TJp  to  1890  the  actual  expenditure,  including  purchase  of  properties, 
interest,  and  cost  of  administration  had  been  £560,000  ($2,725,240); 
£380,000  ($1,849,270)  had  been  provided  out  of  the  rates;  the  balance 
came  from  money  received  for  land  sold.  The  trust  deals  with  extra¬ 
ordinary  sanitary  work.  The  ordinary  sanitary  work  in  relation  to 
houses  is  carried  out  under  the  Edinburgh  public  health  by-laws 
amendment  act  of  1891. 

Prom  1885  to  1890  over  2,000  dwellings  were  condemned  as  unfit  for 
human  habitation.  A  little  over  one-half  of  these  were  permanently 
closed,  while  the  remainder  were  altered,  and  in  many  cases  turned 
into  stores  or  warehouses,  or  pulled  down  by  the  owners  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  erecting  new  ones. 

Occasionally  condemned  houses  have  been  purchased  by  the  corpo¬ 
ration  and  pulled  down  in  order  to  give  freer  air  to  crowded  neighbor¬ 
hoods.  Such  houses,  instead  of  being  purchased  at  prices  favorable 
to  the  owners,  have  been  bought  by  the  corporation  as  uninhabitable 
buildings.  Not  a  little  of  the  expropriated  insanitary  property  in 
Edinburgh  has  been  turned  into  small  open  spaces.  These  can  by  no 
means  be  called  parks  or  squares,  as  they  cover  simply  the  space 
formerly  occupied  by  one,  two,  or  three  houses.  The  spaces  are  paved 
over,  supplied  with  light  gymnastic  apparatus,  and  used  as  recreation 
grounds  for  children.  Such  thoughtful  provision  for  the  youth  of 
tenement  districts  is  a  splendid  boon.  Small  areas  of  this  kind  serve 
ethical  as  well  as  hygienic  ends. 

DUNDEE. 

In  Dundee  the  city  has,  at  different  times,  undertaken  to  clear  out 
slums  by  buying  up  some  of  the  worst  property,  widening  the  streets, 
and  putting  up  stores  and  dwellings  for  the  better  class  of  people. 
In  this  way  some  of  the  dirtiest  streets  have  been  transformed  into 
the  best  business  thoroughfares.  This  work  has  been  attended  by  a 
considerable  loss  to  the  taxpayers,  and  no  provision  was  made  for 
housing  the  poorer  classes  who  were  dispossessed.  About  £506,235 
($2,463,592.63)  were  expended  in  the  purchase  of  these  properties,  lay¬ 
ing  out  of  streets,  etc.,  under  the  local  improvement  act  of  1871,  and 
about  £353,065  ($1,718,190.82)  were  realized,  showing  a  net  deficiency 
of  £153,170  ($745,401.81).  The  effect  of  this  expropriation  is  shown 


CHAPTER  III. - EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  65 


upon  the  death  rate,  which  varied  for  the  preceding  ten  years  between 
20.08  and  36.95  per  1,000,  and  which  during  the  ten  years  from  1881  to 
1891  varied  from  18.3  to  23.91  per  1,000. 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 

In  1865  the  corporation  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  obtained  rather 
broad  powers  for  improving  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  city.  After 
the  passage  of  the  general  act  of  1875  demolition  of  several  insanitary 
areas,  entailing  an  expenditure  of  £63,800  ($310,482.70),  took  place. 
At  the  present  time  the  act  of  1890  is  being  utilized  to  close  up  some 
of  the  worst  property  still  remaining.  The  enlightened  and  aggressive 
policy  which  has  been  inaugurated  will  soon  place  the  great  coal  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  north  in  line  with  the  best  of  English  cities. 

LIVERPOOL. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  Liverpool  sanitary  amendment  act  of 
1864  and  other  local  acts  about  3,700  houses  have  been  reported  to  the 
council  by  the  medical  officer  of  health  with  a  view  to  their  demolition. 
These  houses  have  either  been  leveled  and  their  sites  left  as  open  spaces, 
or  habitations  for  working  peopl  e,  built  in  conformity  to  existing  regula¬ 
tions,  have  been  erected.  The  expenditure  incurred  by  the  corporation 
in  acquiring  insanitary  property,  which  lias  principally  been  confined 
to  courts,  back-to-back  houses,  etc.,  has  been  £226,000  ($1,099,829). 
This  is  in  addition  to  the  extensive  expropriation  of  the  unhealthy  area 
known  as  Nash  Grove,  part  of  which  was  used  for  Victoria  Square  and 
the  remainder  for  dwellings  erected  by  the  corporation. 

BIRMINGHAM. 

Immediately  after  the  passing  of  the  artisans’  and  laborers’  dwellings 
improvement  act  of  1875  steps  were  taken  at  Birmingham  to  put  it  into 
operation.  The  area  acquired  was  218,099  square  yards.  The  total 
capital  expenditure  up  to  March  31,  1891,  amounted  to  £1,666,398  7s. 
lid.  ($8,109,527.79).  Deducting  £115,588  16s.  7d.  ($562,513.04)  paid  to 
the  sinking  fund  out  of  the  income,  the  actual  liability  was  £1,550,809 
11s.  4d.  ($7,547,014.75).  Up  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1890,  £66,607 
($324,142.97)  had  been  received  from  the  rates,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
the  scheme  will  entail  a  charge  of  £20,000  ($97,330)  per  annum  upon 
the  taxpayers  until  all  loans  are  paid  off  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  years 
from  the  date  of  borrowing.  Of  the  property  acquired  under  this  act, 
48,076  square  yards  were  let  on  building  leases  at  the  annual  rental  of 
£36,021  10s.  3d.  ($175,298.69).  The  remaining  property  left  standing 
produced  about  £20,000  ($97,330)  per  annum.  One  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  sixty-seven  houses  and  814  other  buildings  were  acquired. 
Eight  hundred  and  ninety  houses  and  353  other  buildings  were  demol- 
H.  Ex.  354 - 5 


66  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


islied,  while  the  remainder  were  repaired  and  put  into  a  sanitary  con¬ 
dition.  Twenty -two  artisans’  dwellings  were  constructed,  and  a  site  for 
82  additional  dwellings  of  this  class  was  then  being  utilized. 

The  cost  of  the  completed  dwellings  was  about  £4,000  ($19,466),  and 
they  are  let  at  a  rental  of  5s.  6d.  ($1.34)  each  per  week. 

GLASGOW. 

In  1816  the  municipal  and  police  governments  of  Glasgow  were  consol¬ 
idated.  Shortly  afterwards  the  city  council  determined  to  spend  about 
£30,000  ($145,995)  in  acquiring  property  in  the  wynds  and  closes  abut¬ 
ting  on  High  street,  in  the  Saltmarket,  and  in  Gorbals.  A  fairly  large 
area  was  thus  purchased,  but  it  was  soon  seen  that  in  default  of  a  proper 
building  law  builders  would  continue  to  construct  the  same  kind  of 
buildings  in  more  modern  quarters.  The  whole  question  of  sanitary 
legislation  and  building  regulations  was  thus  brought  up,  and  after  a 
committee  had  investigated  the  condition  of  English  cities,  which  they 
found  in  superior  sanitary  condition,  they  made  recommendations  look¬ 
ing  toward  wiser  sanitary  administration  for  the  city.  Two  of  the  most 
important  recommendations  were  the  appointment  of  a  competent  med¬ 
ical  officer  of  health  and  a  staff  of  nuisance  inspectors  for  the  preven¬ 
tion  of  overcrowding  and  the  interdiction  of  houses  unfit  for  human 
habitation.  In  1862  an  act  largely  embodying  the  recommendations  of 
this  committee  received  the  sanction  of  Parliament.  Its  provisions 
were  deemed  at  that  time  exceptionally  rigid,  and  the  period  of  opera¬ 
tion  was  limited  to  five  years.  In  1866,  however,  when  the  application 
for  the  renewal  was  made,  not  only  were  the  old  parts  confirmed,  but 
modifications  in  the  way  of  improvement  were  added.  The  reports  of  the 
health  committee  in  relation  to  the  insanitary  state  of  the  older  houses 
of  the  city,  coming  at  a  time  when  projects  of  construction  of  railway 
terminals  were  pressing  for  solution,  determined  the  town  council,  in 
1865,  to  apply  to  Parliament  for  a  city  improvement  act,  whose  object, 
as  stated  in  the  title,  was  “the  construction  of  new  and  the  widening 
of  older  and  dividing  of  existing  streets,  and  for  other  purposes.” 

The  scheme,  as  originally  conceived,  embraced  about  88  acres,  with 
an  average  population  of  583  per  acre,  though  in  some  districts  more 
than  one  thousand  were  huddled  together  in  this  space.  The  average 
rate  of  mortality  was  38.64  per  1,000,  and  the  deaths  from  epidemic 
diseases  36  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Sanction  was  given  to  the  plan  by 
Parliament  in  the  improvement  act  of  1866.  A  much  broader  scheme 
than  that  originally  conceived  has  been  carried  out  under  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  later  acts  with  financial  results  which  the  following  statement 
shows; 


CHAPTER  III. - EXPROPRIATION  FOR  SANITARY  PURPOSES.  67 


The  total  cost  of  property  acquired  up  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1893  by  the 


Glasgow  Improvement  Trust  has  been  as  follows: 

Within  compulsory  areas .  $7, 882, 780. 24 

Oatlands .  205, 775. 27 

Overnewton .  208, 904.  57 

Cost  of  erection  of  two  model  tenements  in  Drygate  and  site  thereof.  16, 672. 95 

Expenditure  on  formation  of  streets,  squares,  sewers,  etc .  506,251.25 

Lands  of  Kennyliill  and  cost  of  forming  same  into  Alexandra  Park. ..  194, 660. 00 

Cost  of  seven  lodging  houses,  sites,  and  Moncrieff  street  ground .  435,302.08 

Cost  of  Saltmarket  and  other  new  model  tenements  to  date .  255, 067.  52 


Total .  9, 705, 413. 88 

Of  this  there  has  been  disposed  of — 

For  prices  and  feu  duties  within  central  areas . $4, 428,  227. 17 

For  prices  and  feu  duties  at  Oatlands .  230,  481. 98 

For  prices  and  feu  duties  at  Overnewton .  243, 858. 61 

* -  4,902,567.76 

Giving  as  the  net  cost  of  heritable  subjects . .  4, 802, 846. 12 

Value  of  property  still  in  the  hands  of  the  trustees .  2, 653,  760. 40 

Deficiency .  2, 149,  085. 72 

Total  assessment  received  from  the  ratepayers  since  1866 .  2,812, 188.42 

Excess  of  liabilities  over  assets  May  31,  1893,  which  will  have  to  be 
made  by  assessing .  692,573.05 

Total  cost  to  ratepayers  from  first  to  last . . . 3,504,761.47 

For  this  ratepayers  have  obtained : 

1 .  Alexandra  Park. 

2.  Ninety-seven  thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  square  yards 
of  ground,  applied  in  the  formation  of  29  new  streets  and  in  the  improve¬ 
ment  of  25  existing  ones,  being  32,492  square  yards  of  street  surface 
beyond  what  was  contemplated  in  the  original  scheme. 

3.  The  sanitary  and  social  amenities  produced  by  the  street,  sewer, 
and  other  public  works,  which  cost,  as  above  stated,  £104,027  15s.  lOd. 
($506,251.25). 

BELGIUM. 


The  Belgian  laws  of  July  1, 1858,  and  of  November  15, 1867,  regulate 
the  expropriation  of  insanitary  quarters  for  that  country.  The  gov¬ 
ernment,  upon  demand  of  the  municipal  council,  may  authorize  the 
expropriation  of  ground  destined  for  streets  or  for  other  public  uses  as 
well  as  constructions  comprised  in  the  projected  plan.  Thus  one  object 
of  the  works  is  to  make  healthy  or  to  ameliorate,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  an  old  quarter  or  to  construct  a  new  one.  A  commission  is 
appointed  by  the  permanent  deputation  of  the  provincial  council, 
composed  of  five  members,  among  whom  are  one  public  relief  officer,  a 
physician,  an  architect,  and  an  engineer.  A  general  plan  is  made  of 
the  property,  showing  not  merely  the  area  of  expropriation  but  what 
is  to  be  done  with  such  area  after  it  has  been  taken  and  what  part  is  to 
be  sold.  This  remains  a  month  on  view  in  the  municipal  office.  When¬ 
ever  the  land  belongs  to  a  single  proprietor,  or  the  several  proprie¬ 
tors  agree,  they  are  given  preference  in  executing  the  work.  The 


68  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


same  privilege  is  granted  to  a  proprietor  or  to  proprietors  owning  one- 
half  or  more  of  the  ground  to  be  expropriated.  The  valuation  is  made 
by  experts,  named  by  the  two  contracting  parties  and  by  a  third 
chosen  by  a  judge  in  the  court  of  primary  instance  for  the  particular 
quarter.  The  royal  ordinance  determines  the  conditions  of  sale  of  land 
not  occupied  by  public  streets.  The  laws  refer  to  cities  or  communes 
of  2,000  inhabitants  and  over. 

FRANCE. 

There  is  no  law  in  France  like  that  of  England  to  permit  the  expro¬ 
priation  of  insanitary  areas  or  dwellings.  There  may  be  expropriation 
for  cutting  through  streets  or  other  works  of  public  utility.  In  such 
cases,  if  part  of  the  property  is  needed  the  whole  is  taken,  and  if  too 
little  remains  to  build  in  accordance  with  hygienic  requirements,  the 
adjoining  property  may  be  expropriated.  Some  of  the  great  boulevards 
of  Paris  have  thus  been  constructed,  practically  without  cost  to  the  city, 
because  the  adjoining  land  has  been  so  much  enhanced  in  value  that 
the  price  received  when  it  was  sold  has  been  almost  sufficient  to  meet 
the  cost  of  public  works.  Expropriations  in  Paris  are  often  anticipated 
by  people  who  buy  up  property  likely  to  be  condemned.  They  raise 
rents  nominally  at  once.  In  reality  the  tenants  pay  no  more,  the  extra 
sum  being  handed  back.  In  one  case  a  man,  knowing  that  a  small 
piece  of  land  at  the  junction  of  one  of  the  principal  boulevards  with  a 
street  must  sooner  or  later  be  taken,  bought  the  property  and  built  a 
magnificent  house  for  which  the  city  will  ultimately  be  obliged  to  pay. 


CHAPTER  IY. 


SOME  RESULTS  OF  SANITARY  REFORM. 


CHAPTER  TV. 

SOME  RESULTS  OF  SANITARY  REFORM. 

In  London,  in  the  summer  of  1877,  the  prime  minister  of  England, 
Lord  Beaconsfield,  speakiug  at  the  opening  of  some  new  blocks  of 
improved  tenements,  said : 

I  have  touched  upon  the  health  of  the  people,  and  I  know  there  are 
many  who  look  upon  that  as  an  amiable  but  merely  philanthropic  sub¬ 
ject  to  dwell  upon;  but  the  truth  is  that  the  question  is  much  deeper 
than  it  appears  upon  the  surface.  The  health  of  the  people  is  really 
the  foundation  upon  which  all  their  happiness  and  all  their  power  as  a 
state  depend.  It  is  quite  possible  for  a  kingdom  to  be  inhabited  by  an 
able,  active  population;  you  may  have  skilled  manufacturers,  and  you 
may  have  a  productive  agriculture;  the  arts  may  flourish,  architecture 
may  cover  your  lands  with  temples  and  palaces,  you  may  have  even 
material  power  to  defend  and  support  all  these  acquisitions;  you  may 
have  arms  of  precision  and  fleets  of  torpedoes,  but  if  the  population  of 
that  country  is  stationary  or  yearly  diminishes,  if  while  it  diminishes 
in  number  it  diminishes  also  in  stature  and  strength,  that  country  is 
ultimately  doomed.  And  speaking  to  those  who  I  hope  are  proud  of 
the  empire  to  which  they  belong,  I  recommend  to  them  by  all  the  means 
in  their  power  to  assist  the  movement  now  prevalent  for  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people  by  ameliorating  the  dwellings  in  which  they 
live.  The  health  of  the  people  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  first  duty  of  a 
statesman. 

Other  distinguished  authorities  testify  to  the  profound  economic  and 
ethical  significance  of  sanitary  living  environments. 

Sir  James  Paget,  the  distinguished  English  physician,  says  the  sta¬ 
tistics  of  friendly  societies  and  other  similar  bodies  favor  the  belief 
that  the  whole  population  of  England  between  15  and  65  years  old  in 
each  year  work  20,000,000  weeks  less  than  they  might  if  it  were  not  for 
sickness.  Estimating  those  for  the  domestic,  industrial,  and  agricul¬ 
tural  classes  as  numbering  '7,500,000  he  puts  their  loss  at  £11,000,000 
($53,531,500)  annually.  “No  one  who  lives  among  the  poor  can  doubt,” 
says  he,  “that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  sickness  and  loss  of  work 
which  one  sees  might  have  been  prevented.”  He  reckons  this  prevent¬ 
able  proportion  at  one-fourth.  In  such  case  the  loss  that  is  inflicted  on 
the  working  class  must  be  nearly  £3,000,000  ($14,599,500)  yearly.  One 
entirely  preventable  disease,  typhoid  fever,  causes,  he  calculates,  an 
annual  loss  of  230,000  weeks  of  work  to  those  who  survive  it. 

The  royal  commission  on  the  housing  of  the  working  olasses,  1885, 
speaking  of  the  housing  of  the  poor  in  the  low  parts  of  London,  say  that 
the  statistics  of  annual  disease  consequent  upon  overcrowding  would 
not  convey  the  whole  truth  as  to  the  loss  to  health  occasioned  by  it  to 
the  laboring  classes.  Some  years  ago  the  London  board  of  health  insti¬ 
tuted  inquiries  in  these  low  neighborhoods  to  see  what  was  the  amount 

71 


72  CHAPTER  IV. - SOME  RESULTS  OF  SANITARY  REFORM. 


of  labor  lost  in  the  year,  not  by  illness  but  by  sheer  exhaustion  and 
inability  to  work.  It  was  found  that  upon  the  lowest  average  every 
workingman  or  working  woman  lost  about  twenty  days  in  the  year  from 
simple  exhaustion. 

It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  no  matter  how  much  we  may  glean 
from  comparative  death  rates  as  to  the  results  of  sanitary  reform,  they 
do  not'  tell  the  whole  story.  There  are  thousands  of  cases  of  poor 
health  and  depressed  vitality  which  are  not  followed  by  death.  The 
improvement  in  the  death  rate  is,  however,  the  surest  available  gauge 
because  it  is  the  most  tangible.  For  statistical  purposes  it  is  quite 
misleading,  of  course,  to  take  an  old  and  densely  populated  town  whose 
area  has  not  been  extended  for  years  and  compare  its  death  rate  per 
1,000  with  other  towns  which,  within  the  same  period,  have  absorbed 
rural  districts  inhabited  by  fairly  well  to  do  people.  The  low  mortality 
of  such  quarters  necessarily  operates  to  reduce  the  higher  death  rate 
in  the  old  division. 

In  1867  the  census  of  tenement  houses  in  New  York  revealed  the  fact 
that  18,582  existed,  of  which  5,814  were  reported  in  bad  sanitary  con¬ 
dition  from  neglect,  and  9,846  in  bad  sanitary  condition  from  any  cause. 
In  1891  an  enumeration  showed  that  the  number  of  tenement  houses 
had  increased  to  37,358,  sheltering  276,565  families,  and  a  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  1,225,421.  Included  in  the  latter  were  160,708  children  under  5 
years  of  age.  Of  the  total  number  of  tenement  houses  34,967  were 
front  and  2,391  rear  tenement  houses.  First-class  apartment  houses 
were  not  included.  Such  are  the  facts  in  relation  to  the  housing  of 
New  York’s  inhabitants  at  the  two  periods  mentioned.  In  the  interval 
there  had  been  an  enormous  increase  in  tenement  houses,  the  number, 
in  fact,  having  more  than  doubled.  The  general  death  rate  per  1,000 
inhabitants  during  the  same  period  appears  in  the  subjoined  table,  com¬ 
piled  from  reports  of  the  New  York  board  of  health.  The  figures  speak 
well  for  the  influences  of  sanitary  supervision.  Comparing  18(36,  the 
year  the  metropolitan  board  of  health  was  organized,  with  1891,  there 
has  been  a  substantial  reduction.  This  fact  is  more  clearly  shown  if 
the  average  over  five-year  periods  be  consulted. 

DEATH  RATE  PER  1.000  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

[From  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1890  and  1891.] 


Death 


186G 

1807 

1868 

1869 

1870 


Year. 


rate  per 
1,000. 


34. 92 

28.  64 

29.  25 
28.  09 
28.81 


Average 
annual 
death  rate 
per  1,000. 


Year. 


Death 
rate  per 
1,000. 


Average 
annual 
death  rate 
per  1,000. 


1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 


27.11 
23.65 
23.  68 
24. 13 
20.41 


Year. 


Death 
rate  per 
1,000. 


Average 
annual 
death  rate 
per  1,000. 


1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 


25.81 
26. 11 
26. 15 
25.  06 
24. 58 


1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 


28.  22 
33.70 
29.  63 
29.  87 
29.39 


29. 81 


29.74 


1881 

18S2 

1883 

1884 

1885 


30. 99 
29.  54 
25.71 
25. 70 
25.40 


24.  99 


27.  tt 


1891. 


25.97 


25.52 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR.  73 


In  London,  according  to  the  Annual  Summary  of  Births,  Deaths,  and 
Causes  of  Death  in  London  and  Other  Great  Towns,  1891,  published 
by  the  authority  of  the  registrar-general,  the  average  annual  mortality 
by  ten-year  periods  has  been  as  follows: 

Ter  1,000. 


From  1841  to  1850 .  24.8 

From  1851  to  1860 .  23.7 

From  1861  to  1870 .  24.4 

From  1871  to  1880 .  22. 5 

From  1881  to  1890 .  20.5 

In  Edinburgh  the  average  annual  mortality  has  been — 

Per  1,000. 

From  1865  to  1874 .  26.  26 

From  1875  to  1884 .  19.94 

From  1885  to  1890 .  17.51 


Some  share  of  the  improvement  ought  fairly  to  be  credited  to  demo¬ 
litions  wrought  by  the  improvement  trust.  During  the  len  years  from 
1865  to  1874,  the  death  rate  averaged  26.26  per  1,000.  Iu  the  next 
ten  years  the  average  was  19.94  per  1,000.  Dr.  Littlejohn,  the  medical 
officer  of  health,  attributes  the  decrease  largely  to  the  removal  of  fever 
nests  in  the  crowded  parts  of  the  city,  and  to  exercising  powers  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  houses  unfit  for  habitation.  The  general  conditions  of  New 
York  and  Glasgow  are  much  more  similar  than  those  obtaining  in  the 
former  city  and  Loudon.  In  Scotland,  generally,  the  houses  are  from 
three  to  six  stories  high,  whereas  in  London  smaller  buildings  are  the 
rule. 

The  number  of  tenements  rented  for  £4  ($19.47)  and  under  per  annum 
in  Glasgow,  from  1885-83  to  1890-91,  inclusive,  was  as  follows  in  the 
different  years : 


1*85-86 

1886- 87 

1887- 88 

1888- 89 

1889- 90 

1890- 91 


8,  379 
8, 526 
8,641 
8,  559 
8, 609 
8, 443 


This  plainly  shows  that  the  low  rental  tenements  did  not  increase 
proportionally  with  the  increasing  population;  and  this  again  shows 
that  the  pernicious  practice  of  two  families  going  into  the  same  room  is 
on  the  increase. 

In  Glasgow,  at  the  sanitary  census  of  1881,  out  of  every  100  dwellings, 
30  were  one-room  tenements,  44  two-room,  15  three-room,  6  four-room, 
and  only  5  five-room  tenements  and  upward.  Of  the  population,  25  per 
cent  lived  in  one-room  and  45  per  cent  in  two-room  tenements. 

The  Glasgow  police  act  confers  discretionary  power  to  regulate  the 
occupancy  of  tenements  of  not  more  than  three  rooms,  and  not  exceed¬ 
ing  an  aggregate  capacity  of  2,000  cubic  feet,  exclusive  of  lobbies  and 
recesses.  This  is  done  by  affixing  tin-plate  tickets  on  the  outer  door 


74  CHAPTER  IV. - SOME  RESULTS  OP  SANITARY  REFORM. 


stating  the  cubic  contents  and  the  proportionate  inmates  allowed,  at  the 
very  low  rate  of  300  cubic  feet  per  adult  or  two  children  under  8  years. 
These  are  called  “  ticketed  ”  tenements,  and  are  all  one  or  two  room  tene¬ 
ments.  A  system  of  night  inspection  over  them  is  constantly  main¬ 
tained,  and  results  in  prosecutions  for  overcrowding  when  the  legal 
number  of  inmates  is  exceeded.  This  system  was  originally  applied  dur¬ 
ing  an  outbreak  of  typhus  fever,  and  its  extension  still  follows  the  dis¬ 
coveries  of  the  epidemic  inspector.  The  better  class  of  tenants  avoid 
“ticketed”  tenements,  and  even  their  neighborhood.  Consequently, 
landlords  are  always  warned  before  tickets  are  put  up  in  fresh  localities, 
so  that  they  may  save  the  reputation  of  their  property  by  getting  rid  of 
tenants  responsible  for  overcrowding.  The  inhabitants  of  “  ticketed  ” 
tenements  form  a  distinct  class  within  the  general  body  of  inhabitants 
of  one  and  two  room  tenements.  Hor  are  they  an  inconsiderable  class. 
The  total  number  of  ticketed  tenements  in  the  city  (December  31, 1887) 
was  23,288,  namely,  16,413  tenements  of  one  room  and  6,875  of  two 
rooms.  About  11  per  cent  in  each  case  were  found  empty,  so  that  we 
have  14,642  inhabited  tenements  of  one  room,  containing  46,463  inmates, 
and  6,157  inhabited  tenements  of  two  rooms,  containing  28,704  inmates. 
It  thus  appears  that  35  per  cent  of  the  whole  population  of  one-room, 
and  14  per  cent  of  the  population  of  two-room  tenements,  have  their 
tenements  ticketed.  Of  the  inmates  of  the  ticketed  one-room  tene¬ 
ments,  5  per  cent  are  lodgers;  of  two-room,  6  per  cent. 

Statistics  show  that  the  number  of  ticketed  tenements  had  risen  at 
the  end  of  1892  to  24,000.  There  had  been  at  the  same  time  an  increase 
in  the  amount  of  cubic  air  space  required,  so  that  the  24,000  ticketed 
tenements  instead  of  accommodating  98,400  adults,  as  would  have  been 
possible  under  the  old  law,  may  now  shelter  but  81,180.  The  ticketed 
tenement  has  a  direct  tendency  to  discourage  the  maintenance  of  slums. 
The  value  of  such  property  is  reduced,  because  the  best  tenants  leave. 
Continual  nagging  and  inspection  make  the  owners  tired  of  holding  it. 
Thieves  and  prostitutes  remain  as  tenants,  and  often  poor,  unskilled 
working  people  with  small  wages  are  obliged  to  stay.  Both  classes  are 
irregular  rent  payers. 

The  death  rate  of  Glasgow,  when  the  improvement  trust  commenced 
operations  (1871),  was  32  per  1,000;  in  1892  it  was  22.8  per  1,000  for  the 
extended  city,  and  for  the  old  area  23.6. 

In  Liverpool  the  returns  of  persons  per  inhabited  house  during  the 
last  five  census  periods  would  seem  to  indicate  a  gradual  improvement 
as  regards  overcrowding.  The  figures  are  only  valuable  upon  the 
assumption  that  the  type  of  houses  has  not  materially  changed,  which 
competent  observers  believe  to  be  true: 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LA.BOR.  75 


NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  PER  INHABITED  HOUSE  IN  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND. 
[From  the  Report  on  the  Health  of  Liverpool  during  the  year  1891.] 


Year. 

Persons 

per 

inhabited 

house. 

1851 . -  ...  . 

6.  9 

1861 . . . 

6.  7 

1871 . 

6.  3 

1881 . 

5.  98 

1891 . 

5.  67 

- - -  -  -■  J  -  - - - - - - 

As  a  rule  houses  in  Brussels  were  not  built  expressly  for  working 
people.  They  were  originally  intended  for  the  wealthier  classes,  who, 
as  the  buildings  grew  older  and  fashionable  localities  changed,  moved 
elsewhere,  their  former  habitations  being  adapted  for  working  people. 
Official  statistics  of  death  rates  in  the  Belgian  capital,  prepared  by 
Dr.  Janssens,  furnish  testimony  to  the  efficiency  of  general  sanitary 
amelioration :  • 


DEATH  RATE  PER  1,000  FROM  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  AND  FROM  ALL  CAUSES  IN 

BRUSSELS,  BELGIUM. 


Year*. 

Death  rate  per  1,000 
from — 

All 

causes. 

Infectious 

diseases. 

1864  to  1868  . 

31.3 

3. 03 
4.  06 

18(39  to  187:3 . 

29. 1 

1874  to  1878 . 

25.7 

2.  02 

1879  to  1883 . 

25.3 

1.58 

1884  to  1888 . . . 

23.7 

1.59 

1889  to  1890 . 

21.9 

1.31 

In  1874  the  bureau  of  hjTgiene  was  organized  and  a  campaign  against 
nuisances  seriously  begun.  The  difference  between  the  total  number 
of  deaths  for  the  fifteen  years  preceding  1874  and  the  fifteen  years  fol¬ 
lowing  that  date  was  12,825.  If  we  accept  Dr.  Pochard’s  computation 
as  to  the  economic  value  of  life  among  urban  populations,  the  general 
social  profit  obtained  amounted  to  18,000,000  francs  ($3,474,000). 

During  the  year  1871  Professor  Virchow  of  Berlin  published  a  report 
showing  that  dividing  the  preceding  fifteen  years  into  three  periods  of 
five  years  each  the  mortality  of  the  city  had  advanced  in  the  ratio  of  5, 
7,  9,  so  that  in  a  fourth  period  it  would  have  more  than  doubled  on  the 
first.  He  also  showed  that  over  the  same  periods  the  mortality  of  chil¬ 
dren  under  1  year  had  been  in  the  ratio  of  5, 7, 11,  so  that  it  had  actually 
doubled  within  fifteen  years.  In  1872,  40  per  cent  of  the  total  number 
•f  deaths  were  of  children  under  1  year  of  age.  The  result  of  this 
showing  was  the  commencement  of  works  in  1873  which  soon  trans¬ 
formed  the  city  into  one  of  the  most  healthy  urban  centers  on  the 


76  CHAPTER  IV. - SOME  RESULTS  OF  SANITARY  REFORM. 


continent.  Not  only  was  the  increasing  mortality  checked,  hut  it  has 
been  reduced  from  over  30  to  about  22  per  1,000. 

Results  are  equally  striking  in  relation  to  infant  mortality  in  New 
York  city.  Including  under  this  term  children  from  1  to  5  years  of  age, 
the  figures  show  a  notable  decline  during  the  period  from  1875  to  1891. 
The  following  table  sets  forth  the  facts : 

t 

PER  CENT  OE  DEATHS  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY  BY  AGE  PERIODS. 

[From  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1891.] 


Total 

deaths. 

Percent  of  total  deaths. 

Year. 

Over 

5  years. 

Under 

1  year. 

1  to  5 
years. 

1875  . 

30, 709 
29, 152 

26,  203 

27,  008 

51.  65 

27.81 

20.  54 

1870 . 

51.  26 

28.  03 

20.  72 

1877 . 

53.  03 

28.31 

18. 66 

1878 . 

54.  05 

26.  29 

19.  66 

1879  . 

28,  342 
31, 937 
38,  624 

54. 92 

26.  70 

18. 37 

1880  . 

54. 13 

27.  32 

18. 55 

1881 . 

54.  08 

25.  09 

20.83 

1882  . 

37, 924 
34,  011 

53.  80 

26.  02 

20. 18 

1883  . 

59.  26 

25.  49 

15.25 

Year. 

Total 

deaths. 

Per  cent  of  total  deaths. 

Over 

5  years. 

Under 
1  year. 

1  to  5 
years. 

1884 . 

35,  034 

56.41 

27. 50 

16. 09 

1885  . 

35,  682 

57. 21 

26. 08 

16. 71 

1880  . 

37,  351 

56.  84 

26.  32 

16.84 

1887  . 

38,  933 

56. 94 

25.  90 

17. 16 

1888  . 

40, 175 

56. 79 

25.  91 

17.29 

1889  . 

39,  679 

56.77 

26.54 

16. 70 

1890 . 

40, 103 

59.  34 

25.  66 

15.  00 

1891 . 

43,  059 

58.  26 

25. 75 

15. 99 

In  London,  according  to  the  summary  of  the  registrar-general  already 
referred  to,  the  average  annual  mortality,  by  ten-year  periods,  of  children 
under  1  year  of  age  to  1,000  births  has  been  as  follows: 


1841  to  1850 .  157 

1851  to  1860 .  155 

1861  to  1870 .  162 

1871  to  1880 .  158 

1881  to  1890 .  152 


In  Glasgow  the  percentage  of  deaths  of  children  under  5  years  of 
age  to  total  deaths  has  been  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 


1855  to  1859 .  52.20 

1860  to  1864 .  49.72 

1865  to  1869 .  47.52 

1870  to  1874 .  45.48 

1875  to  1879 .  45.02 

1880  to  1884 .  44.49 

1885  to  1890 .  43.63 


Of  the  children  who  die  in  Glasgow  before  they  complete  their  fifth 
year,  32  per  cent  die  in  one-room  dwellings,  and  not  2  per  cent  in 
tenements  of  five  rooms  and  upward.  The  average  annual  death  rate, 
by  various  periods,  of  children  under  1  year  of  age,  per  1,000  births,  in 
Glasgow  was  as  follows : 


1873  to  1875 .  16fr 

1876  to  1880 .  147 

1881  to  1885 .  152 

1886  to  1893 .  145 


There  is  an  undoubted  relation  between  overcrowding,  either  within 
dwellings  or  on  ground  space,  and  death  rates.  In  Saint  Giles’  ward, 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR.  77 


Edinburgh,  where  one  eighth  of  all  the  one-room  tenements  of  the  city 
were  situated,  the  death  rate  was  7.8  per  1,000  above  the  general 
average. 

The  following  table  furnishes  significant  facts  for  specified  localities 
in  New  York: 

POPULATION,  DEATHS,  AND  DEATH  KATES  IN  CERTAIN  LOCALITIES  IN  NEW 

YORK  CITY. 

[From  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Health  of  the  City  of  New  York,  1891.] 


Population. 

Deaths. 

Death  rates. 

Locality. 

Total. 

5  years 
or  over. 

Under 

5  years. 

Total. 

5  years 
or  over. 

Under 
5  years. 

Gen¬ 

eral. 

5  years 
or  over. 

Under 

5  years. 

Bordering  on  East 
River  below  Eighty- 
sixth  street . 

200, 737 

172, 567 

28, 170 

5,549 

2,  881 

2,  608 

27.64 

16.  70 

94.70 

Bordering  on  North 
River  below  Eighty- 
sixth  street . 

129,  630 

114,114 

15,516 

3, 953 

2, 107 

1, 846 

30.49 

18.46 

118.  60 

Former  marsh  land .... 

161,  294 

138, 764 

22,  530 

4,  302 

2, 124 

2, 178 

26.66 

15.31 

96.07 

Made  land . 

73,  8U5 

65, 259 

8,  606 

2, 175 

1,249 

920 

30.84 

19. 14 

107.  60 

Vicinity  of  slaughter¬ 
houses  . 

63, 753 

55, 469 

8,284 

1,764 

868 

896 

27. 67 

15. 65 

108.15 

Vicinity  of  gas  houses. 

106, 620 

92,  983 

13,  637 

2,810 

1,353 

1,457 

26.  36 

14. 55 

106.  86 

Density  of  population  within  houses  is  much  more  nearly  related  to 
death  rates  than  density  of  population  upon  the  acre.  In  New  York 
the  population  of  the  poor  Jewish  quarter  is  very  dense,  namely,  535 
to  the  acre.  The  death  rate,  however,  is  comparatively  low,  a  fact 
most  probably  due  to  the  cleaning  up  every  Friday.  The  experience 
of  large  London  housing  companies  goes  to  show  that  from  1,000  to 
1,200  persons  may  be  housed  on  an  acre  with  resulting  lower  mortality 
thau  for  the  city  as  a  whole. 

The  following  table  gives  the  density  of  population  and  death  rate 
of  twenty-five  of  the  large  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom  containing 
100,000  population  and  upward  during  the  census  year  1891: 


PERSONS  PER  ACRE  AND  DEATH  RATE  IN  TWENTY-FIVE  LARGE  TOWNS  IN 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 


[Quoted  in  the  Report  on  the  Health  of  Liverpool  during  the  year  1891  from  the  registrar-general’s 

x  reports.] 


Town. 

Population. 

Persons 
per  acre. 

Death 
rate  per 
1,000. 

London  . 

4, 221, 452 

56.5 

21.4 

Glasgow . 

567, 143 

92.8 

25.3 

Liverpool . 

517, 116 

99.3 

26.9 

Manchester . 

506,  469 

39.6 

26.5 

Birmingham . 

429,  906 

51.2 

22.2 

Leeds . 

369,  099 

17.1 

22.9 

Dublin . 

347,312 

14.0 

26.5 

Sheffield . 

325,  304 

16.6 

23.9 

Edinburgh . 

261,970 

44.4 

21.6 

Bristol . 

222,  049 

61.8 

20.9 

Bradford . 

216, 938 

20.1 

22.2 

Nottingham . 

212,  662 

21.4 

19.9 

Hull . 

200,  934 

25.4 

21.0 

Town. 

Population. 

Persons 
per  acre. 

Death 
rate  per 
1,000. 

Salford . 

198,  717 

38.4 

26.0 

Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne  . 

187, 502 

34.9 

23.8 

Portsmouth  .... 

160, 128 

37.1 

19.0 

Leicester . 

142, 581 

44.6 

21.7 

Oldham . 

132,010 

27.9 

25.7 

Sunderland . 

131,  3<>‘; 

43.3 

25.0 

Cardiff . 

130,  283 
120,  496 

17.7 

22.1 

Blackburn . 

17.3 

25.8 

Brighton . 

115,  606 

46.0 

18.2 

Bolton . 

115,  253 

47.9 

21.9 

Preston . . 

107,  864 

26.8 

27.3 

Norwich . . 

101,316 

13.6 

19.3 

78  CHAPTER  IV. - SOME  RESULTS  OF  SANITARY  REFORM. 

Generally  speaking,  this  table  shows  that  where  there  is  the  greatest 
density  of  population  per  acre  there  the  death  rate  is  the  highest. 
There  are  exceptions,  however,  but  they  are  almost  exclusively  in  the 
cities  of  Lancashire,  where  the  smoke  and  dampness  render  the  climate 
exceptionally  unfavorable. 

The  subjoined  tables,  relating  to  Scotland,  are  most  interesting,  and 
give  pertinent  facts  in  relation  to  death  rates  and  house  accommodation : 


MEAN  DEATH  KATE  (1871  TO  1880),  AVERAGE  SIZE  OF  FAMILIES,  AND  PER  CENT 
OF  POPULATION  LIVING  IN  DIFFERENT-SIZED  TENEMENTS  IN  EIGHT  PRINCI¬ 
PAL  TOWNS  OF  SCOTLAND. 

[From  the  Vital  Statistics  of  the  City  of  Glasgow,  Part  I. — Preliminary,  December,  1885.] 


Town. 

Death 
rate, 
1871  to 
1880. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
family 
(cen¬ 
sus  of 
1881). 

Tenements  of— 

One  room. 

Two  rooms. 

Three  rooms. 

Four  rooms. 

Five  rooms 
or  over. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
fam¬ 
ily- 

Per 

cent  of 
popu¬ 
lation. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
fam¬ 
ily- 

Per 
cent  of 
popu¬ 
lation. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
fam¬ 
ily- 

Per 
cent  of 
popu¬ 
lation. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
fam¬ 
ily- 

Per 
cent  of 
popu¬ 
lation. 

Aver¬ 
age 
size  of 
fam¬ 
ily- 

Per 
cent  of 
popu¬ 
lation. 

Aberdeen.... 

21.7 

4. 30 

2.4 

13.6 

4.2 

38.3 

5.0 

20.3 

5.2 

9.1 

6.9 

18.7 

Leith  . 

22.5 

4.49 

3.0 

14.2 

4.5 

43.3 

4.8 

18.3 

5.0 

9.0 

6.3 

15.2 

Perth . 

22.6 

4. 42 

2.3 

10.0 

4.1 

34.3 

4.8 

19.3 

5.0 

10.7 

6.8 

25.7 

Edinburgh  .. 

23.2 

4. 36 

2.7 

16.8 

4.2 

31.6 

4.8 

15.4 

4.9 

8.9 

6.6 

27.3 

Dundee . 

25.7 

4.  36 

2.7 

16.9 

4.2 

48.1 

5.3 

14.7 

5.1 

6.2 

11.2 

14.1 

Greenock .... 

27.4 

4.  81 

3.2 

15.4 

4.9 

47.3 

5.3 

19.7 

5.5 

5.7 

7.0 

12.0 

Paisley . 

27.8 

4.78 

3.4 

23.0 

5.1 

44.1 

5.5 

14.7 

5.2 

6.8 

7.5 

11.4 

Glasgow . 

28.6 

4.45 

3.1 

24.7 

4.9 

44.7 

5.3 

16.0 

5.3 

6.1 

7.8 

8.5 

Total . . 

4. 44 

2.9 

19.9 

4.6 

41.9 

5.1 

16.4 

5.1 

7.1 

7.3 

14.7 

RELATION  OF  DEATH  RATE  TO  HOUSE  ACCOMMODATION  IN  SCOTLAND. 


[From  the  Vital  Statistics  of  the  City  of  Glasgow,  Part  I. — Preliminary,  December,  1885.] 


Town. 

Death 
rate,  1871 
to  1880. 

Persons 

per 

acre, 

1881. 

Rooms 

per 

tene¬ 

ment. 

Persons 

per 

room. 

Per  cent 
of  popu¬ 
lation 
living  in 
one-room 
tene¬ 
ments. 

Average 
number 
of  per¬ 
sons  in 
one-room 
tene¬ 
ments. 

Per  cent 
of  popula¬ 
tion  living 
in  tene¬ 
ments  of 
five  rooms 
or  up¬ 
ward. 

Average 
number  of 
persons  in 
tenements 
of  five 
rooms  or 
upward. 

Aberdeen . 

21.7 

18 

3.42 

1.511 

13.6 

2.4 

18.7 

6.9 

Leith . 

22.5 

43 

2. 98 

1.671 

14.2 

3.0 

15.2 

6.3 

Perth . 

22.6 

7 

4.96 

1.312 

10.0 

2.3 

25.7 

6.8 

Edinburgh . 

23.2 

55 

4. 19 

1.320 

16i8 

2.7 

27.3 

6.6 

Dundee . 

25.  7 

42 

2.85 

1. 870 

16.9 

2.7 

14.1 

11.2 

Greenock . 

27.4 

46 

2.  64 

1.907 

15.4 

3.2 

12.0 

7.0 

Paisley . 

27.8 

16 

2. 42 

1. 984 

23.0 

3.4 

11.4 

7.5 

Glasgow . 

28.6 

84 

2. 34 

2.  054 

24.7 

3.1 

8.5 

7.8 

Total . 

40 

2. 92 

1.740 

19.9 

2.9 

14.7 

7.3 

The  towns  are  placed  in  the  order  of  their  mean  annual  death  rate. 
It  will  be  seen  that  they  fall  naturally  with  reference  to  death  rate 
into  two  groups  of  four  towns  each.  In  the  first  group  are  Aberdeen, 
Leith,  Perth,  and  Edinburgh,  with  death  rates  ranging  from  21.7  to 
23.2  per  1,000;  in  the  second  group  are  Dundee,  Greenock,  Paisley,  and 
Glasgow,  with  death  rates  ranging  from  25.7  to  28.6  per  1,000. 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR.  79 


The  second  table  shows  that  the  tenements  are  smallest  in  Glasgow, 
w here  they  average  2.34  rooms  each,  and  largest  in  Perth  and  Edin¬ 
burgh,  where  they  average  4.96  and  4.19  rooms  each,  respectively.  In 
the  second  group  the  size  of  the  tenement  varies  but  little,  from  2.34 
to  2.85  rooms  each.  Here  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  death  rate  rises 
as  the  size  of  the  tenement  diminishes.  There  seems  likewise  to  be  a 
close  relation  between  the  average  number  of  persons  per  room  and  the 
death  rate.  The  four  towns  with  the  highest  death  rates  show  also  the 
largest  number  of  persons  to  the  room.  Dundee,  with  1.870  persons 
to  the  room,  has  a  death  rate  of  25.7  per  1,000,  and  Glasgow,  with  2.054 
persons  to  the  room,  has  a  death  rate  of  28.6  per  1,000. 

Obviously  the  percentage  of  the  total  population  living  in  tenements 
of  one  room  is  a  fact  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  must  have  a 
close  relation  to  physical  health.  The  table  shows  that  generally 
speaking  the  highest  death  rates  are  found  in  the  towns  which  show 
the  largest  percentage  of  the  population  living  in  one-room  tenements. 
Another  column  of  this  table  shows  the  average  number  of  persons 
living  in  each  one-room  tenement.  These  averages  quite  generally 
follow  the  death  rate,  the  highest  death  rates  being  found  in  the  towns 
with  the  largest  number  of  persons  in  one-room  tenements.  Again, 
the  town  which  has  the  smallest  percentage  of  the  population  living  in 
tenements  of  five  rooms  or  upward  has  the  highest  death  rate,  and  so 
on  throughout  the  group  of  the  four  towns  which  have  the  high  death 
rates.  Beyond  this  line  there  is  a  slight  exception,  Edinburgh  and 
Perth  having  higher  death  rates  than  Aberdeen  and  Leith,  though  they 
have  a  greater  percentage  of  the  population  living  in  tenements  of  five 
rooms  and  upward.  In  Dundee,  Greenock,  Paisley,  and  Glasgow,  where 
these  larger  tenements  are  most  crowded,  we  find  the  highest  death 
rates.  This  table  exposes  the  tremendous  hygienic  influences  of  over¬ 
crowding.  Generally  speaking,  it  proves  that  the  most  densely  popu¬ 
lated  tenements  are  connected  with  the  highest  mortality  and  vice  versa. 


. 


4 

' 

. 


'  . 


. 


. 


CHAPTER  V. 


SANITARY  AID  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK. 


H.  Ex.  354 - 6 


81 


CHAPTER  V. 

SANITARY  AID  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK. 


Some  of  the  most  prominent  witnesses  before  the  English  royal  com¬ 
mission  on  the  housing  of  the  working  classes,  of  1885,  stated  their 
belief  that  existing  laws  were  ample  for  dealing  with  all  sanitary  ques¬ 
tions  if  they  were  properly  enforced.  The  same  complaint  has  often 
been  heard  in  different,  cities  of  the  United  States.  Sanitary  law  and 
sanitary  administration  are  two  quite  different  things,  and  the  one 
does  not  always  follow  the  other  in  natural  sequence. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  expediency  plays  a  certain  part 
in  sanitary  administration.  To  have  rigidly  enforced  at  the  outset 
stringent  laws,  such  as  exist  in  New  York,  for  example,  would  have 
arrayed  the  property  owning  element  in  opposition  and  might  have 
brought  about  a  repeal.  As  owners  of  unhealthy  property  grow  accus¬ 
tomed  to  greater  pressure,  and  as  tenants  become  more  exacting  in 
their  demands,  the  task  of  sanitary  authorities  becomes  easier.  In  the 
beginning  an  insistence  on  conformity  to  legal  prescriptions  (many  of 
which  were  looked  upon  as  unnecessarily  strict)  would  have  been  unwise 
and  might  have  blocked  the  way  to  progress. 

Sanitary  authorities,  like  all  other  administrative  bodies,  if  left  to 
themselves,  are  apt  to  become  conservative.  A  little  stirring  up  occa¬ 
sionally  is  usually  a  good  thing,  and  the  interest  of  enlightened  citizens, 
organized  into  associations  for  extending  aid  and  cooperation,  is 
especially  useful. 

The  testimony  of  such  veterans  in  sanitary  science  as  Dr.  Russell  of 
Glasgow,  Dr.  Shirley  Murphy  of  London,  Dr.  du  Mesnil  of  Paris,  and 
Dr.  Janssens  of  Brussels,  as  well  as  of  a  host  of  American  experts, 
goes  to  show  that  the  ignorance  and  apathy  of  the  poor,  for  whose 
benefit  work  has  to  be  done,  are  among  the  greatest  obstacles  met  with 
in  the  discharge  of  duty.  Sanitary  aid  societies  may  do  much  to  help 
the  authorities  by  acting  as  intermediaries  during  the  period  in  which 
fear  of  the  possible  consequences  of  communicating  a  knowledge  of  the 
existence  of  nuisances  or  other  insalubrity  still  holds  sway.  Direct 
contact  between  the  poor  and  boards  of  health  being  once  established, 
there  is  no  longer  the  same  necessity  of  intervention.  An  important 
fact  is  that  without  the  good  offices  of  the  intermediary,  cooperation  is 
with  difficulty  established. 


83 


84  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


A  fundamental  need,  which  has  so  far  received  but  scant  recognition 
in  this  country  and  England,  but  which  is  at  least  recognized  in  the 
educational  systems  of  France  and  Belgium,  is  instruction  in  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  household  hygiene  in  the  public  schools.  The  effects  of  this 
kind  of  teaching  would  soon  become  apparent,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
generation  or  two  would  powerfully  react  upon  sanitary  amelioration. 
Dissatisfaction  with  unhealthy  surroundings  would  be  cultivated,  and 
the  knowledge  of  what  was  good  and  wholesome  would  make  of  the 
rising  generation  a  far  more  exacting  tenant  class  than  their  elders. 

The  principal  functions  of  sanitary  aid  associations  may  be  summa¬ 
rized  as  follows : 

1.  To  organize  and  mold  popular  sentiment  in  favor  of  wise  sanitary 
legislation. 

2.  To  assist  boards  of  health  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties  by 
bringing  to  their  knowledge  the  existence  of  insalubrious  conditions  in 
districts  where  they  are  most  likely  to  occur  and  which  need  more  or 
less  constant  watching. 

3.  To  encourage  sanitary  authorities  to  do  their  whole  duty  by  sup¬ 
porting  them  in  difficulties  arising  in  critical  cases,  and  in  bringing 
proper  pressure  to  bear  wherever  there  seems  to  be  an  inclination  to 
relax  effort.  The  creation  of  public  opinion  to  sustain  sanitary  authori¬ 
ties  in  their  work  is  also  an  important  duty. 

4.  To  assist  in  the  education  of  the  poor  on  sanitary  questions ;  teach¬ 
ing  them  that  there  is  an  authority  to  appeal  to  against  nuisances, 
instructing  them  in  procedure;  leaving  in  their  homes  a  printed  list  of 
elementary  hygienic  observances,  and  such  literature  as  is  occasionally 
distributed  by  boards  of  health,  giving  suggestions  on  the  care  of 
infants,  and  the  conditions  to  be  observed  in  the  treatment  of  persons 
in  cases  of  infectious  diseases.  Education  in  sanitary  as  well  as  in  all 
other  matters  lies  back  of  reform.  The  knowledge  of  improved  con¬ 
ditions  begets  a  desire  for  their  enjoyment. 

5.  The  publication  from  time  to  time  of  facts  gleaned  from  official 
sources  which  tend  to  act  as  a  salutary  warning  against  residence  in 
unhealthy  neighborhoods.  An  example  of  what  is  meant  is  the  inquiry 
made  by  Dr.  Thresh  into  the  causes  of  excessive  mortality  prevailing 
in  District  No.  1,  Ancoats,  Manchester,  England.  Taking  the  returns 
of  deaths  from  the  health  and  hospital  reports  he  was  able  to  show  the 
true  death  rate  for  the  whole  district.  It  was  proved  that  only  in  a 
few  blocks  was  this  less  than  40  per  1,000,  while  in  some  places  it  was 
50,  G7,  and  even  80  per  1,000.  The  publication  of  these  facts  aroused 
the  more  intelligent  working  people  who  were  residents  of  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  to  form  “sanitary  and  healthy  home  associations,”  as  they 
called  them.  They  were  awakened  from  their  apathy,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  rehabilitation  of  the  district  was  effected.  Dissemination  of 
knowledge  in  relation  to  death  rates  and  causes  of  sicknesses  for  speci¬ 
fied  localities  is  of  great  practical  value.  Not  only  is  public  opinion 


CHAPTER  V. - SANITARY  AID  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK.  85 

aroused,  but  interested  opposition  is  left  powerless  to  thwart  progres¬ 
sive  action.  Public  opinion,  when  informed,  will  always  sustain  sanitary 
authorities  in  the  application  of  drastic  remedies.  To  make  healthy  and 
keep  healthy  existing  buildings  is  a  work  of  scarcely  less  importance, 
though  much  more  difficult  to  accomplish  than  the  safeguarding  of 
new  structures.  Voluntary  associations  of  individuals  cooperating 
harmoniously  with  the  regularly  constituted  authority  may  powerfully 
assist  in  promoting  health  and  good  housing  among  the  masses.  In 
sanitary  matters  eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety. 

All  well  organized  boards  of  health  seek  to  disseminate  among  the 
poor  information  relating  to  the  care  of  children  and  the  maintenance 
of  a  favorable  hygienic  environment.  The  New  York  board  of  health 
does  considerably  more.  It  maintains  a  special  summer  corps  of  physi¬ 
cians  whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  every  tenement  house,  beginning  in  the 
latter  part  of  June,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  medical  advice  and  treat¬ 
ment,  distributing  literature,  giving  hints  for  the  care  of  infants,  and 
searching  out  insanitary  conditions.  There  are  fifty  of  these  medical 
gentlemen,  forty-eight  doing  duty  in  the  tenement  house  district,  while 
two  are  assigned  to  the  hospital  boat  and  to  charitable  excursions  under¬ 
taken  for  the  benefit  of  mothers  and  children.  Personal  visitation  of 
this  kind  is  far  more  effective  than  the  distribution  of  literature  alone. 
Attention  is  usually  paid  to  oral  advice  from  those  professionally  com¬ 
petent  to  give  it,  while  heed  is  not  always  accorded  to  even  the  most 
useful  hints  which  well  edited  circulars  may  contain.  A  word  or  two 
often  suffices  to  correct  household  defects  unfavorably  affecting  the 
health  of  occupants  which  were  regarded  hitherto  with  complacency. 

The  Mansion  House  Council  on  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor  is  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  widely  known  among  sanitary  aid  associations. 
It  is  presided  over  by  the  lord  mayor  of  London,  and  its  present  vice- 
presidents  are  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  chief  rabbi,  who 
replaced  Cardinal  Manning  at  the  latter’s  death,  and  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury.  The  organization  was  fouuded  in  1884.  At  that  time  the 
sanitary  administration  of  London  was  confided  to  the  various  vestries 
and  district  boards,  whose  governing  officers  often  were  interested  in 
opposing  the  enforcement  of  sauitary  law,  or  who  were  entirely  apa¬ 
thetic  in  the  matter.  The  object  of  the  society,  whose  headquarters 
is  the  Mansion  House,  has  been  to  provide  in  each  parish  a  body  of 
independent  persons  with  adequate  knowledge  and  experience,  who, 
with  no  other  aim  than  that  of  securing  to  the  poor  the  benefits  which 
the  legislature  has  provided  for  them,  will  inquire  into  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  the  poorer  quarters,  ascertain  where  grievances  exist, 
and  bring  them  to  the  attention  of  the  proper  authorities,  and  when 
other  expedients  fail  will  set  the  law  in  motion.  To  do  this  with 
promptitude  and  thoroughness  is  beyond  the  range  of  accomplishment 
by  any  single  individual,  consequently  the  necessary  machinery  was 
provided  for  carrying  it  out.  Voluntary  committees  were  constituted 


86  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

in  the  principal  parishes,  and  inspectors  have  brought  to  light  cases  of 
insalubrity  which  have  been  dealt  with  either  by  the  authorities  or  the 
owners.  In  places  were  the  average  of  sanitation  was  especially  low 
the  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department  has,  at  the  society’s 
request,  caused  a  public  inquiry  to  be  made  into  the  condition  of  tene¬ 
ments  occupied  by  the  poor.  A  general  idea  of  the  work  done  by  the 
society  may  be  gathered  from  the  following  statement  of  its  activities 
during  the  year  1891: 

The  report  states  that  operations  had  been  very  successful.  The  year 
previous  closed  with  a  public  inquiry  into  the  sanitary  condition  of 
Shoreditch,  the  results  of  which  were  perfectly  satisfactory,  inasmuch 
as  all  the  statements  made  by  the  council  were  fully  justified.  Early  in 
January,  1891,  the  solicitors  of  the  association,  under  Section  XII  of 
the  housing  of  the  working  classes  act  of  1890,  took  an  action  in  a  case 
where  a  tenant  had  lost  several  children  as  well  as  his  wife  from  the 
insanitary  condition  of  his  home.  Damages  were  claimed  from  the 
landlord  which,  after  some  correspondence,  were  paid  in  full  without 
recourse  to  court  proceedings.  The  council  made  an  attempt  to  get  the 
president  of  the  local  government  board  to  introduce  a  clause  into  his 
public  health  bill  rendering  the  registration  of  ownership  of  houses  and 
land  compulsory.  Although  not  successful  at  the  time  the  matter  will 
not  be  allowed  to  drop.  The  passage  of  the  public  health  (London)  act 
of  1891  was  an  event  of  great  importance.  The  council  took  great 
interest  in  promoting  the  measure,  and  especially  certain  clauses 
designed  to  bring  the  vestries  and  district  boards  of  the  metropolis 
under  the  control  of  the  local  government  board,  and  also  in  creating 
a  central  sanitary  authority  in  the  London  county  council.  The  report 
goes  on  to  say: 

For  our  part  we  shall  not  cease,  so  long  as  we  have  funds  at  our 
command,  to  watch  jealously  the  doings  of  the  various  bodies  intrusted 
with  the  guardianship  and  promotion  of  the  health  of  the  people.  Our 
work,  instead  of  lessening,  is  increasing;  and  from  all  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom  our  advice  and  heed  are  being  sought  as  to  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  sanitary  aid  committees.  We  have  had  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  last  year  three  inspectors  regularly  at  work,  and  sometimes  four. 
There  is  scarcely  a  parish  in  the  metropolis  to  which  our  services  have 
not  been  called,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  hopeful  signs  that  the  public 
are  becoming  increasingly  alive  to  the  value  of  sanitation,  as  shown  by 
the  numerous  applications  we  receive  almost  daily  for  aid  in  the  redress 
of  grievances  arising  from  sanitary  conditions  in  connection  with  dwell¬ 
ings  or  workshops. 

The  board  of  guardians  for  the  relief  of  the  Jewish  poor  of  London 
has  a  sanitary  committee.  An  inspector  is  hired  and  is  constantly 
employed  in  visiting  the  houses  of  the  Jewish  poor.  During  the  year 
1891,  the  last  for  which  any  report  has  been  received,  4,170  visits  were 
paid  to  1,831  houses.  Eight  hundred  and  eight  houses  were  visited 
only  once,  and  343  houses  were  visited  four  times  or  more.  Out  of  the 
1,831  houses  visited  893,  or  less  than  one-half,  were  classified  as  being 


CHAPTER  V. - SANITARY  AID  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK.  87 


up  to  the  standard  of  the  local  authority.  The  rest  were  below.  The 
report  says : 

It  is  clear  that  the  task  of  attempting  to  obtain  an  improvement  in 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  houses  of  the  Jewish  poor  demands  the 
utmost  watchfulness,  all  houses  found  defective  having  to  be  visited 
again  and  again,  until,  either  with  or  without  pressure  on  the  part  of 
the  local  authority,  the  owners  are  induced  to  remedy  the  matters  com¬ 
plained  of.  At  the  same  time  it  is  gladly  admitted  that  very  grad¬ 
ually  a  decided  amelioration  is  taking  place  in  respect  to  the  districts 
with  which  the  committee  has  to  deal,  the  necessity  lor  repeated  visits 
being  considerably  smaller  than  in  past  times. 

It  is  gratifying  also  to  know  that  practically  the  whole  of  the  cases 
which  stood  on  the  books  as  requiring  attention  at  the  beginning  of  1891 
were  reinspected  during  the  year  and  have  been  satisfactorily  dealt  with, 
defects  having  been  removed.  The  most  satisfactory  part  is  that  in 
more  than  one-half  of  the  cases  where  sanitary  defects  were  discovered 
the  ameliorations  were  secured  without  any  action  of  the  local  authority, 
but  by  intimations  to  the  owners  from  the  committee.  Sixty  per  cent  of 
the  cases  were  so  rectified.  The  work  of  this  committee  is  confined 
largely  to  the  East  End,  taking  in  the  districts  known  as  the  City,  Mile 
End,  Whitechapel,  Saint  George’s,  and  Bethnal  Green.  It  is  of  great 
importance  because  of  the  influx  of  Jews  from  Russia  since  the  perse¬ 
cution  began.  Serious  consequences,  especially  as  regards  overcrowd¬ 
ing,  might  ensue,  unless  considerable  supervision  were  exercised.  This 
committee  does  not  deal  so  much  with  overcrowdiug  as  with  nuisances. 

There  seems  to  be  a  great  variety  of  practice  among  Jews  of  differ¬ 
ent  nationalities.  In  Whitechapel  one  may  find  one  side  of  the  street 
occupied  solely  by  Polish  and  the  other  by  Russian  Jews.  The  one 
are  quite  cleanly  in  their  habits,  while  in  the  case  of  the  other  the 
hygienic  standard  is  exceedingly  low. 

The  Social  and  Sanitary  Society  of  Edinburgh  is  an  organization 
which  accomplishes  a  great  deal  of  good.  It  employs  inspectors  of 
both  sexes,  the  greater  number  being  women,  who  visit  buildings  in 
all  parts  of  the  city  in  order  to  ferret  out  cases  which  need  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  the  authorities.  They  have  not  the  right  to  enter  any  premises; 
indeed,  they  have  no  official  prerogatives  whatever,  but  tenants  gen¬ 
erally  receive  them  courteously  and  do  not  object  to  their  visits.  Land¬ 
lords  and  factors,  as  a  rule,  bear  them  no  very  favorable  sentiments. 
The  inspectors  make  reports  on  printed  blanks  whenever  the  cases  are 
of  special  importance;  otherwise,  on  prepared  postal  cards,  which  they 
mail  to  the  city  engineer’s  office.  An  official  inspector,  upon  receipt  of 
such  notices,  immediately  visits  the  premises  in  question  and  recom 
mends  appropriate  action. 

The  Belgian  committees  of  patronage,  though  semiofficial  organiza¬ 
tions,  in  reality  represent  the  cooperation  of  a  committee  of  influential 
citizens  with  local  sanitary  authorities  to  stimulate  the  latter  more 
efficiently  to  perform  their  work.  The  functions  of  these  bodies  will 
be  more  fully  referred  to  in  Chapter  YIL 


88  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  Better  Dwellings  Society  of  Boston  is  a  sanitary  aid  association. 
Its  organization  was  due  to  the  initiative  of  the  associated  charities  of 
Boston,  whose  board  of  directors,  on  December  11, 1891,  adopted  the 
following  resolution : 

In  view  of  the  growing  interest  and  increase  in  public  sensitiveness 
concerning  the  worst  homes  in  which  poor  people  are  allowed  to  live, 
the  board  believes  that  now  is  the  time  for  a  vigorous  effort  to  aid  the 
board  of  health  in  causing  such  tenements  either  to  be  improved  or 
vacated.  The  board  will  therefore  take  steps  through  its  committee  on 
tenements  to  invite  representatives  from  the  Boston  Cooperative  Build¬ 
ing  Company,  the  Improved  Dwellings  Association,  the  Workingmen’s 
Building  Association,  and  the  public  at  large,  to  form,  with  members 
of  the  associated  charities,  a  joint  committee,  with  power  to  add  to 
their  number,  to  take  such  action  as  they  may  deem  fit  to  improve  the 
tenements  of  the  poorest  of  our  population,  or,  where  these  tenements 
are  so  bad  that  they  can  not  be  made  habitable,  to  cause  them  to  be 
vacated.  The  board  hopes  that  such  a  joint  committee  will  employ  the 
best  professional  experts  to  cooperate  with  the  committee  in  an  investi¬ 
gation  of  those  tenements  which  should  not  be  occupied  as  homes,,  and 
in  appearing  at  any  hearings  before  the  board  of  health. 

In  May,  1892,  the  society  was  finally  constituted,  its  preamble  setting 
forth  the  fact  that  the  object  was  to  aid  in  improving  the  sanitary  con¬ 
dition  of  Boston,  and  especially  of  its  tenement  houses.  Two  special 
subcommittees  with  this  end  in  view,  the  one  designated  for  “the  inves¬ 
tigation  of  unfit  tenements,”  and  the  second  as  a  “  sanitary  committee,” 
were  constituted.  At  this  meeting  a  vote  was  passed  to  “  approve  the 
action  of  the  [executive]  committee  in  complaining  to  the  board  of 
health  of  the  tenements  inspected  by  them  on  February  10, 1892,  and 
that  the  action  of  the  board  of  health  in  ordering  them  to  be  vacated  is 
entitled  to  the  strong  support  of  this  society  and  of  all  who  are  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  welfare  of  our  very  poor  citizens.”  It  was  also  voted  that 
in  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  rents  paid  in  tenements  unfit  for 
habitation  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  paid  for  fairly  good  tenements 
there  was  no  reason  for  retaining  the  former  on  the  score  of  economy  to 
tenants,  and  that  “the  board  of  health  be  urged  to  proceed  to  vacate  all 
the  large  number  of  tenements  which  are  unfit  for  human  habitation.” 
The  Boston  board  of  health  responded  quickly  to  the  recommendations 
of  the  committee.  Within  three  days  after  the  petition  was  filed  19 
places  were  ordered  vacated.  In  the  first  three  months  of  the  activity 
of  the  society  49  houses  were  closed.  During  the  previous  year  99  were 
ordered  vacated,  but  of  this  number  only  11  were  actually  closed. 

In  New  York  there  are  probably  thirty  associations  engaged  in  ascer¬ 
taining  infractions  of  the  laws,  and  otherwise  aiding  the  sanitary 
authorities.  The  president  of  the  board  of  health  has  sometimes  found 
some  of  these  organizations  a  little  querulous  and  troublesome,  but  in 
general  he  believes  them  to  be  of  very  considerable  utility.  The  Sani¬ 
tary  Aid  Society  has  been  one  of  the  most  important  of  this  class  of 
volunteer  bodies.  It  was  founded  about  nine  years  ago,  and  has  at 


CHAPTER  V. - SANITARY  AID  SOCIETIES  AND  THEIR  WORK.  89 


various  times  instituted  a  house-to-house  visitation,  gathered  statistics 
of  the  most  flagrant  violations  of  sanitary  laws,  especially  in  that  most 
overcrowded  part  of  the  city,  the  Tenth  ward,  and  with  this  material 
has  urged  the  health  board  to  extra  activity  and  reenforced  it  in  its 
pleas  for  a  larger  sanitary  inspection  corps.  In  a  measure,  the  society 
has  assisted  in  cleansing  and  remodeling  many  of  the  most  dangerous 
of  the  overcrowded  tenements,  and  in  abating  nuisances  which  were  a 
constant  menace  to  the  city.  Among  its  other  activities  it  has  opened 
a  model  lodging  house,  thus  attacking  the  problem  of  overcrowding 
from  both  sides. 

The  Sanitary  Protective  League,  the  Ladies’  Health  Protective 
Association,  a  most  aggressive  and  successful  organization  of  women 
who  extend  their  activities  much  beyond  the  sanitation  of  houses,  and 
the  society  in  which  Dr.  Leo  is  the  moving  spirit,  and  which  concerns 
itself  particularly  with  the  care  of  newly  arrived  immigrants  and  other 
victims  of  the  sweat  shop,  are  conspicuous  examples  of  sanitary  aid 
societies  in  the  American  metropolis. 

The  New  York  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor 
has  now  completed  its  fifty-first  year  of  existence.  Among  the 
objects  of  the  society  are  enumerated — u improving  the  sanitary  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  and  the  elevation  of  their  home  life, 
their  health,  and  their  habits.”  Taking  the  report  of  1 891  for  example, 
it  is  found  that  506  complaints  were  received  of  the  insanitary  condi¬ 
tion  of  tenement  houses,  streets,  and  alleys.  Four  hundred  and  four¬ 
teen  appeared  to  be  good  causes  and  were  reported  to  the  board  of 
health,  4  to  the  department  of  public  buildings,  7  to  owners  directly, 
and  the  remainder  were  not  reported.  The  board  of  health  found  that 
in  293  cases  there  was  good  cause  for  complaint.  In  89  instances 
nuisances  were  abated ;  in  25  cases  the  complaints  were  considered  ill- 
founded,  and  7  cases  were  still  under  inspection.  Leaking  roofs,  defect¬ 
ive  water-closets,  premises  generally  filthy,  and  wet  cellars  were  the 
chief  causes  cited. 

Vigilance  is  necessary  to  maintain  a  proper  hygienic  standard  in  the 
housing  of  the  poor.  From  the  very  magnitude  of  their  work  the  reg¬ 
ular  sanitary  administrations  find  themselves  crippled  from  lack  of 
resources  and  of  inspectors  sufficient  to  fully  accomplish  the  work. 
The  organization  and  maintenance  of  such  societies  is  a  necessity  in 
order  to  secure  the  wise  enforcement  of  health  laws  and  the  advance 
of  sanitary  education  in  any  city.  The  prime  conditions  of  success  are 
hearty  cooperation  with  regularly  constituted  authority,  and  an  inti¬ 
mate  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  needs  of  the  homes  of  the  poor. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  REGULATIONS. 

The  importance  of  a  comprehensive  and  uniform  plan  in  laying  out 
the  suburbs  of  cities  is  by  no  means  fully  appreciated.  It  is  forgotten 
that  such  districts,  more  or  less  remote  in  our  own  time,  may  be  the 
very  heart  of  the  city  in  a  succeeding  generation.  The  folly  of  our  fore¬ 
fathers  is  often  a  subject  of  facetious,  and  sometimes  irritating,  comment. 
But  the  folly  is  not  all  past,  and  in  this  regard  we  of  the  present  are  fre¬ 
quently  guilty.  While  we  are  occupied  in  undoing  the  folly  of  our  fore¬ 
fathers,  and  spending  vast  sums — in  the  manner  of  Boston  which  dur¬ 
ing  the  last  twenty-five  years,  spent  $40,000,000 — to  widen  or  straighten 
crooked  thoroughfares,  we  allow  the  perpetuation  of  the  same  evils  in 
rapidly  growing  suburbs.  How  often  do  individuals  or  companies,  in 
their  so-called  improvement  of  certain  sections,  lay  out  the  acres  at 
their  command  in  streets  running  at  right  angles  to  those  already 
existing,  without  reference  to  any  system  of  thoroughfares.  When  the 
owner  of  the  adjoining  property  makes  up  his  mind  to  improve  his 
possessions  he  seeks  to  get  out  of  them  the  largest  amount  of  salable 
land  and  runs  his  streets  in  conformity  with  his  neighbors’,  or  not,  as 
best  suits  his  convenience  or  interest.  Such  arrangements  as  these,  in 
the  second  or  third  generation,  are  bound  to  create  insanitary  property. 
Subsequently  these  sections  become  the  slums,  the  cost  of  eradicating 
which,  and  of  making  provisions  for  proper  light,  air,  and  ventilation, 
is  simply  enormous. 

German  cities  have  taught  us  a  valuable  lesson  in  the  matter  of  lay¬ 
ing  out  suburbs.  Improvement  plans  are  furnished  by  the  munici¬ 
pality,  and  architects  are  invited  to  compete  in  presenting  designs. 
After  it  has  been  decided  that  a  certain  district  shall  be-  opened  up,  a 
jury  is  appointed  to  assess  damages,  terms  are  made  with  private 
owners,  and  the  architect  furnishing  the  most  acceptable  scheme  is 
awarded  the  prize.  In  Berlin  an  effective  check  is  placed  upon  too 
rapid  urban  development  by  jmohibiting  building  upon  unsewered  land. 

Overcrowding  on  space  is  likewise  a  question  of  deep  importance. 
It  is  not  sufficient  to  prescribe  that  the  structural  characteristics  of  a 
'  house  shall  be  such  as  to  make  it  reasonably  healthy.  The  report  of 
the  English  local  government  board  in  1888  on  back-to-back  houses  (a) 


a  Houses  built  baok-to-back,  with  no  intervening  open  space  whatever. 

93 


94  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


shows  that  where  through  ventilation  is  impossible,  and  where  rooms 
face  narrow  closed  courts  in  which  the  atmosphere  is  always  sunless 
and  stagnant,  a  powerful  tendency  is  created  toward  excessive  mor¬ 
tality  from  diarrhea,  consumption,  complaints  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
and  zymotic  diseases  generally.  Upon  the  adoption  by  the  city  coun¬ 
cil  of  the  act  of  1890,  for  improvement  in  the  dwellings  of  the  working 
classes,  the  city  of  Manchester  found  itself  confronted  with  the  prodi¬ 
gious  task  of  dealing  with  a  great  many  back-to-back  cottages.  In 
order  to  discover  a  rational  method,  and  effect  a  permanent  cure,  the 
medical  officer  of  health,  Dr.  John  Tatham,  was  requested  to  make 
a  report  to  the  unhealthy  dwellings  subcommittee  upon  the  whole 
question. 

An  enumeration  of  the  back-to-back  houses  in  Manchester  disclosed 
the  fact  that  there  were  about  10,000.  During  the  five  years  following 
1879,  while  Dr.  Tatham  was  medical  officer  of  Salford,  immediately 
adjoining  Manchester,  he  collected  certain  information  as  to  death  rates 
in  districts  containing  different  proportions  of  back-to-back  houses, 
which  furnishes  indisputable  evidence  as  to  their  unhealthiness.  Four 
groups  were  taken,  an  enumeration  of  the  population  made,  the  per¬ 
centage  of  back-to-back  houses  ascertained,  and  the  annual  death  rate 
per  1,000  inhabitants  from  all  causes,  and  from  four  specific  diseases 
which  are  perhaps  most  largely  affected  by  insanitary  conditions.  The 
results  appear  in  the  following  table : 

ANNUAL  DEATH  RATE  PER  1,000  DURING  FIVE  YEARS  IN  BACK-TO-BACK  HOUSES 

IN  MANCHESTER,  ENGLAND. 

[From  Provisional  Report  on  Back-to-back  Houses,  by  tbe  Medical  Officer  of  Health,  Manchester, 

April,  1891.] 


Groups. 

Total 

popu¬ 

lation. 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
back-to- 
back 
houses. 

All 

causes. 

Com¬ 
mon  in¬ 
fectious 
dis¬ 
eases. 

Con¬ 

sump¬ 

tion. 

Other 

lung 

dis¬ 

eases. 

Diar¬ 

rhea. 

I . 

8,713 

0 

27.5 

4.6 

2.8 

6.6 

1.4 

II . 

if  749 
11, 405 
892 

23 

29.2 

4.8 

3.3 

7.8 

1.6 

Ill . 

56 

30.5 

6.2 

3.6 

7.9 

2.1 

IV . 

100 

38.4 

8.7 

5.2 

9.2 

3.4 

The  general  sanitary  condition  of  these  groups  was  practically  the 
same;  but  notwithstanding  this  the  table  disclosed  the  fact  that  the 
general  mortality  in  back-to-back  houses  exceeded  that  in  dwellings  of 
the  same  class  with  through  ventilation  by  40  per  cent,  the  mortality 
from  infectious  diseases  by  93  per  cent,  and  that  from  consumption  and 
other  lung  diseases  by  86  and  39  per  cent,  respectively.  The  mortality 
from  diarrhea  was  more  than  twice  as  heavy.  In  every  case  the  death 
rate  from  all  these  classes  of  diseases  increases  as  the  proportion  of 
back-to-back  houses  increases. 

Owing  to  the  great  number  of  these  houses  in  Manchester  it  was  not 
considered  practicable  to  demolish  them  all,  notwithstanding  they  were, 


Plan  No. 


CHAPTER  YI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS.  95 

for  the  most  part,  old,  defective  in  construction,  ill  drained,  and  without 
decent  water-closet  or  ash-pit  accommodation. 

Dr.  Tatham,  while  not  committing  himself  definitely  to  the  recogni¬ 
tion  of  any  permanent  scheme,  favored  that  suggested  in  the  accompa¬ 
nying  plan  (plan  ISo.  1). 

Here  two  blocks  of  two-room  two-story  houses,  built  back-to-back  so 
as  to  allow  no  through  ventilation,  furnished  the  problem.  The  plan 
shown  provides  for  the  demolition  of  every  other  house  in  one  block. 
Each  of  the  houses  remaining  m  this  block  is  connected  with  the  house 
in  the  other  block  adjoining,  thus  forming  a  four-room  house  running 
through  from  street  to  street.  In  the  other  block  the  remaining  houses 
stand  as  two-room  houses,  but  are  provided  with  ventilation  and 
improved  lighting  from  the  yard,  made  by  the  above  mentioned  demoli¬ 
tion.  This  yard  is  used  in  common  by  the  tenants  of  a  two-room  and 
those  of  a  four-room  house. 

House  overcrowding  on  a  given  area  is  guarded  against,  and  suitable 
and  separate  water-closet  accommodations  in  the  yard  for  every  two 
families  in  the  block  is  secured.  The  chief  danger  lies  in  the  possible 
difficulty  in  letting  four-roomed  tenements.  There  is  a  danger  that 
subletting  into  two  separate  apartments  of  two  rooms  each  would  be 
resorted  to,  thus  eliminating  the  possibilities  of  through  ventilation. 

No  words  need  be  used  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  properly 
prepared  sites  and  of  good  drainage.  Lord  Shaftesbury  mentions  a 
peculiar  case  showing  the  value  of  the  latter.  In  Lambeth  Square, 
which  was  occupied  by  a  class  of  working  people  in  receipt  of  good 
wages,  deaths  at  ordinary  times  numbered  about  30  in  1,000.  Without 
any  apparent  reason  the  rate  rose  to  55  in  1,000.  The  abolition  of  cess¬ 
pools,  which  had  been  within  the  houses,  and  the  substitution  of  water- 
closets,  together  with  providing  self-cleansing  drains,  reduced  the  death 
rate  to  13  per  1,000. 

Overcrowding  on  space  is  a  very  important  matter.  Liverpool  is  the 
most  densely  populated  city  in  Great  Britain.  Its  death  rate  is,  with 
one  exception,  also  the  highest.  Still,  density  of  population  as  the 
cause  of  a  high  death  rate  must  always  be  considered  in  reference  to 
the  character  of  the  buildings.  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  testified  that  the 
average  number  of  persons  housed  on  an  acre  of  space  by  his  company 
was  1,000.  He  was  of  the  opinion  that  this  was  not  too  many  where 
good  ventilation  was  provided  and  where  streets  are  wide.  His  theory 
seems  to  be  borne  out  in  the  investigation  made  by  Dr.  Arthur  News- 
holme  into  the  vital  statistics  of  the  Peabody  and  other  block  dwellings 
in  London  which  show  a  most  favorable  death  rate.  The  exact  results 
of  this  inquiry  are  given  elsewhere.  It  is  undeniable  that  block  dwell¬ 
ings,  when  very  high,  cause  drafts  of  cold  air  in  the  streets  below  and 
shut  off  other  property  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Human  beings  are 
said  to  be  as  much  dependent  for  their  health  upon  sunlight  as  are 
plants. 


96  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

In  London  previous  to  1855  there  were  no  regulations  to  prevent 
building  houses  back-to-back — that  is,  without  any  intervening  open 
space  whatever.  The  act  of  1855  required  that  “every  building  used 
or  intended  to  be  used  as  a  dwelling  house,  unless  all  the  rooms  can  be 
lighted  and  ventilated  from  a  street  or  alley  adjoining,  shall  have  in  the 
rear  or  on  the  side  thereof  an  open  space  exclusively  belonging  thereto 
of  the  extent  at  least  of  100  square  feet.”  The  height  or  width  of  the 
building  did  not  matter. 

The  next  reform  was  in  1862,  when  an  amending  act  was  passed  pro¬ 
viding  that  no  building  to  be  used  as  a  dwelling  could  be  erected  on  the 
side  of  any  new  street  of  a  less  width  than  50  feet,  which  exceeded  in 
height  the  distance  across  the  street  from  house  to  house,  unless  with 
the  written  consent  of  the  board  of  works.  While  this  rectified  the 
open  space,  in  a  measure,  in  front,  nothing  was  done  for  the  rear.  In 
1882  an  amending  act  made  the  following  provisions  for  rear  open 
space:  Frontage  of  building  not  exceeding  15  feet,  open  space  at  the 
rear  150  square  feet;  not  exceeding  20  feet,  the  minimum  space  at  the 
rear  200  square  feet;  not  exceeding  30  feet,  the  minimum  space  at  the 
rear  300  square  feet;  exceeding  30  feet,  the  minimum  space  at  the  rear 
450  square  feet.  There  should  be  no  buildings  erected  on  this  space 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  ceiling  of  the  ground  floor  story,  and  the 
space  should  extend  throughout  the  entire  width  of  the  building.  This 
provision  had  reference  to  buildings  built  after  1882,  not  to  those  con¬ 
structed  previously. 

The  act  of  1882  is  the  one  which  is  still  in  force  in  London,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  recommendation  of  the  royal  commission  on  the  housing 
of  the  working  classes,  in  1885,  that  in  the  rear  of  every  new  dwelling 
house,  whether  in  old  or  new  streets,  there  should  be  provided  a  pro¬ 
portionate  extent  of  space  belonging  exclusively  to  it,  to  be  free  from 
erection  of  buildings  thereon  from  the  ground  level  upward,  that  the 
space  extend  laterally  throughout  the  entire  width  of  the  dwelling 
house,  that  for  the  distance  across  the  space  from  the  building  to  the 
boundary  of  adjoining  premises  a  minimum  should  be  prescribed,  and 
that  this  minimum  should  be  increased  with  the  height  of  the  dwelling 
house  or  building.  The  London  county  council,  in  the  case  of  the 
Boundary  street  area  in  Bethnal  Green,  among  the  requirements  for 
buildings  to  be  erected  on  the  land,  laid  down  the  following  conditions: 

1.  That  blocks  of  dwellings  should  not  exceed  40  feet  in  height. 

2.  That  parallel  blocks  should  be  separated  from  each  other  by  an 
open  space,  clear  from  the  ground,  of  at  least  40  feet  in  width. 

3.  The  new  streets  must  be  40  feet  in  width,  and  the  blocks  run  almost 
due  north  and  south,  so  as  to  admit  the  maximum  amount  of  light  to 
all  the  tenements  equally. 

4.  Courtyards  between  the  blocks  are  to  be  left  entirely  open  at  each 
end,  and  unobstructed  by  cross  buildings. 


3 

*A. 


PROPOSED  PLAN  OF  REGULATING  THE  OPEN  SPACES  IN  THE  REAR  OF  DWELLING  HOUSES  IN  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  2. 


3©  Fc^r 


LONDON  COUNTY  COUNCIL  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— SELF-CONT  AINED 

TENEMENTS. 

Plan  No.  3. 


LONDON  COUNTY  COUNCIL  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— ASSOCIATED  TENEMENTS. 

Plan  No.  4. 


Dresse » 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


97 


Land  sold  under  these  conditions  can  not,  of  course,  bring  a  very  good 
price;  but  Dr.  Parkes  makes  the  point  that  it  is  better  that  the  scheme 
should  cost  a  great  deal  to  the  ratepayers  of  this  generation  in  order 
that  future  generations  may  not  have  to  pay  a  further  price  for  the 
sanitary  neglect  of  the  present. 

The  building  regulations  of  London  have  been  so  defective  that  it 
would  have  been  possible  to  cover  82  per  cent  of  the  sites  with  build¬ 
ings  and  create  a  density  of  population  equal  to  1,560  per  acre,  with 
a  percentage  of  uninhabitable  rooms  equaling  40  per  cent.  Wherever 
building  land  is  available  the  question  of  overcrowding  on  space  is 
likely  to  come  up.  It  may  be  interesting,  therefore,  to  know,  from  the 
accompanying  diagram  (plan  No.  2),  the  proposed  method  of  regulat¬ 
ing  open  space  in  the  rear  of  dwelling  houses  in  London. 

The  general  principle  of  the  plan  is  that  an  open  space,  free  from  any 
building,  10  feet  in  depth  throughout  the  entire  width  of  the  building, 
is  left  at  the  rear.  The  remainder  of  the  ground  may  be  covered  with 
any  buildings,  provided  no  part  of  them,  except  the  chimneys,  pass 
above  a  line  drawn  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  from  the  rear  toward 
the  house.  This  is  a  most  excellent  requirement,  for  it  treats  houses, 
whether  large  or  small,  in  proportion  to  their  size.  The  plan  is  also 
adopted  in  Liverpool. 

There  has  apparently  been  no  general  building  act  passed  by  Parlia¬ 
ment.  The  report  of  the  building  act  committee  of  the  London  county 
council  for  the  year  endiug  March  31,  1893,  says: 

No  bill  has  yet  been  introduced,  but  the  committee  is  in  hopes  that 
the  subject  will  be  taken  up  by  the  government  during  the  next  ses¬ 
sion  of  Parliament.  Meantime  the  committee  has  had  many  suggested 
amendments  of  the  law  under  consideration,  and  will  in  due  course 
report  thereon  to  the  council. 

The  two  latest  plans  adopted  by  the  London  county  council  for  hous¬ 
ing  the  poor  people  on  the  flat  system  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
sketches  (plans  Nos.  3  and  4).  The  first  provides  self-contained  dwell¬ 
ings  and  the  second  is  constructed  on  the  associated  plan.  The  latter 
will  cost  about  14  per  cent  less  per  room  than  the  former. 

There  is  through  ventilation  from  the  front  to  the  back,  and  unob¬ 
structed  light.  In  the  self-contained  tenements  there  are  no  passages. 
There  are  separate  sculleries,  with  a  sink  under  the  window,  and  a 
copper  boiler  for  washing.  The  water-closet  is  approached  through  a 
disconnected  lobby  open  to  the  external  air.  In  the  associated  tene¬ 
ment  the  corridor  has' rooms  on  one  side  only  and  the  sanitary  acces¬ 
sories  are  grouped  together. 

These  buildings  are  constructed  with  a  space  between  them  equal  to 
the  height  of  surrounding  buildings,  and  are  arranged  so  that  each 
room  receives  sunlight.  Both  constructions  are  absolutely  fireproof. 
They  are  estimated  to  produce  a  net  return  of  3  per  cent.  These  plans 
were  prepared  by  Mr.  Thomas  Blashill,  and  they  are  significant  as  rep- 
H.  Ex.  354 - 7 


98  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


resenting  the  method  upon  which  the  London  county  council  is  about 
practically  to  undertake  the  housing  of  the  poor  in  certain  expropriated 
areas. 

The  London  county  council,  as  the  successor  of  the  metropolitan 
board  of  works,  obtained  the  franchise  for  building  the  Blackwall 
tunnel  under  the  Thames.  Much  property  was  expropriated,  and  a  great 
many  dwellings  of  working  people  demolished  in  order  to  secure  a 
proper  approach  to  the  tunnel.  Under  the  law  the  council  is  compelled 
to  provide  for  at  least  one-lialf  of  the  persons  displaced.  The  land 
was  first  offered  to  private  building  companies  at  a  low  rate.  They 
refused,  however,  to  accept  the  terms.  Whenever  the  London  county 
council  disposes  of  land  for  dwelling  purposes,  regulations  are  made 
for  the  new  construction;  and  supervision,  while  building  is  going  on, 
is  committed  to  an  employee  designated  clerk  of  the  works.  Other 
buildings  are  inspected  by  district  surveyors  before  they  can  be  opened 
for  use.  The  latter  officials  are  paid  by  fees,  which  vary  with  the  num¬ 
ber  and  character  of  the  buildings.  Being  to  an  extent  dependent 
upon  the  good  will  of  the  builder  as  regards  amount  and  payment  of 
their  fees,  they  are  unduly  tempted  to  be  lenient.  The  clerk  of  the 
works,  however,  is  not  dependent  upon  the  builder,  and  besides  is  con¬ 
stantly  on  the  ground.  He  makes  his  report  to  the  chief  supervisor  of 
buildings. 

The  regulations  to  which  private  building  companies  object  are: 

1.  Staircases  must  be  4  feet  wide. 

2.  Dwellings  must  not  be  higher  than  four  stories. 

3.  Ceilings  must  be  9  feet  high. 

4.  Comparatively  severe  requirements  regarding  light  and  air  spaces. 

The  council  consider,  however,  that  the  real  reasons  for  their  refusing 

to  build  on  land  owned  by  the  county  council  are  the  careful  supervi¬ 
sion  maintained  by  its  clerk  of  the  works  in  reference  to  construction 
and  materials  used,  and  also  the  requirement  that  men  employed  must 
be  paid  union  rates  of  wages.  The  latter  stipulation,  it  is  said,  will 
enhance  the  cost  so  that,  considering  also  the  better  borrowing  powers 
of  the  public  body,  private  companies  would  be  at  a  disadvantage. 
Both  the  county  council  and  the  building  companies  look  forward  to  a 
compromise. 

Regulations  adopted  by  the  London  county  council  for  building  houses 
for  working  people  upon  its  own  laud  contain  the  following  prescriptions : 

Staircases. — A  central  staircase  in  blocks  of  dwellings  is  objectionable, 
and  as  regards  convenience  of  plan  and  thorough  ventilation  of  each 
dwelling,  the  best  amongst  the  modes  commonly  in  use  is  that  which 
provides  a  staircase  close  to  the  outer  wall,  and  having  large  openings 
communicating  with  the  open  air.  Such  a  staircase  can  be  conveniently 
arranged  to  give  access  to  four  dwellings,  and  the  ventilation  of  such 
dwellings  can  be  effected  by  means  of  open  doors  and  fanlights,  so  that 
a  thorough  current  of  air  can  be  obtained  when  it  is  desired.  If  it  is 
felt  in  the  winter  time  that  this  arrangement  leaves  the  persons  using 
the  staircases  too  much  exposed  to  the  weather,  windows  partially 
enclosing  the  openings  can  be  provided. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


99 


The  chief  alternative  to  this  kind  of  staircase  seems  to  be  one  which 
is  in  the  center  of  the  block,  and  gives  access  to  dwellings  on  eacli  side 
of  it.  In  this  case  the  ingress  of  fresh  air  to  the  staircases  can  only 
be  through  the  entrance  doorway  and  along  a  short  passage,  and 
through  the  skylight  at  the  top  of  the  staircase.  Upon  this  the  dwell¬ 
ings  opening  from  the  staircase  have  to  depend  for  their  through  venti¬ 
lation. 

Both  these  plans  are  in  considerable  use. 

Staircases  in  buildings  more  than  three  stories  high  should  be  at 
least  4  feet  in  width.  The  walls  of  the  staircases  to  a  height  of  about 
4  feet  6  inches  should  be  finished  with  glazed  or  hard-pressed  bricks; 
the  upper  portions  with  hard  bricks  neatly  pointed. 

Basement  floors. — There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  compared  with  the  other 
floors  of  a  building,  the  basement  floor  is  undesirable  as  a  residence, 
but  in  building  artisans’  dwellings  it  is  generally  expedient  to  construct 
a  story  below  the  ground  floor,  though  it  is  not  necessary  that  they 
be  used  as  dwellings;  but  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  defiuite  evidence 
at  the  present  time  that  basement  rooms,  fronting  upon  a  principal 
street,  should  not  be  used  for  dwelling  purposes,  their  use  need  not  be 
forbidden,  provided  that  adequate  precautions  against  fire  are  taken, 
and  that  the  bottom  of  the  window  sills  is  not  lower  than  the  level  of 
the  adjoining  pavement,  and  not  more  than  3  feet  above  the  floor,  and 
that  in  other  respects  they  agree  with  the  provisions  of  section  103  of 
the  metropolis  local  management  act,  as  applied  to  new  buildings. 

They  are  usually  let  at  a  rate  materially  lower  than  the  rooms  above 
them,  but  if  they  are  let  at  the  same  rate  as  the  upper  floors  in  a  high 
block  of  buildings,  they  are  preferred  by  many  people  who  arc  not  able 
to  mount  a  considerable  number  of  stairs.  Beyond  the  question  of 
health,  it  is  not  necessary  to  object  to  such  rooms  on  account  of  their 
proximity  to  the  street,  those  who  occupy  them  being  able  to  make 
such  arrangements  for  privacy  as  they  find  necessary. 

Where  no  areas  are  practicable,  the  walls  should  be  covered  with 
asphalt  or  other  damp-resisting  material,  from  the  damp-course  to  the 
footings. 

Bathrooms ,  etc. — Unless  they  are  in  close  vicinity  to  public  baths  and 
wash  houses  (a  condition  which  can  very  rarely  happen),  bath  and  wash 
house  accommodation  should  be  provided  to  every  block  of  dwellings, 
aud  this  can  best  be  provided  in  a  separate  building  or  on  the  basement 
floor,  or  in  a  distinct  section  of  the  block  that  can  be  constantly  under 
inspection,  and  to  which  inexpensive  arrangements  for  water  supply, 
etc.,  can  be  applied. 

In  connection  with  this  matter,  the  water-closet  accommodation  has 
been  considered,  on  the  assumption  that  the  dwellings  to  be  built  or 
promoted  by  the  council  will  generally  be  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
lowest  class  of  the  population  which  inhabits  separate  tenements,  a 
class  just  above  that  which  uses  the  common  lodging  houses,  and  for 
which  neither  private  speculators  nor  the  societies  for  building  artisans’ 
dwellings  make  any  provision.  It  seems  inexpedient  that  either  water- 
closets  or  separate  water  supply  or  sinks  should  be  constructed  so  as 
to  be  immediately  accessible  from  any  dwelling  rooms.  A  sufficient 
number  of  closets  should  be  supplied  to  each  floor  of  dwellings  to 
which  a  separate  staircase  is  provided,  together  with  a  provision  of 
sinks  and  water  supply  for  common  use.  Such  closets  should  have 
both  doors  and  windows  opening  directly  to  the  open  air;  and  where 
possible,  there  should  be  one  closet  to  each  family. 


100  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Dust  shoots  should  be  provided  from  each  common  scullery,  or  from 
the  landing  adjacent,  to  discharge  into  galvanized  iron  movable  dust 
bins,  which  can  be  carried  out  and  emptied  into  the  dust  cart. 

Size  of  rooms. — The  number  of  rooms  to  be  provided  in  each  tene¬ 
ment,  and  their  sizes,  have  been  considered  as  one  question,  and  the 
following  may  be  regarded  as  minima: 

1.  In  a  one-roomed  tenement  the  minimum  superficial  area  should  be 
144  feet.  This  would  conveniently  be  provided  in  a  room  measuring 
about  12  feet  by  12  feet. 

2.  A  two-roomed  tenement  should  have  a  similar  room,  with  an  addi¬ 
tional  room  containing  96  superficial  feet,  or  measuring  12  feet  by  8  feet. 

3.  A  three-roomed  tenement  should  have  a  large  room  containing  144 
feet  in  superficial  area,  and  two  rooms  each  containing  96  feet. 

These  sizes,  however,  should  not  be  rigidly  fixed, but  rooms  of  various 
sizes  should  be  provided.  Four-roomed  tenements  need  not  be  pro¬ 
vided,  but  if  they  are,  the  fourth  room  should  be  of  about  100  feet 
superficial  area. 

It  would  be  convenient  as  regards  planning,  and  also  as  regards  the 
population  to  be  accommodated,  that  some  little  variety  should  exist  in 
the  suer#  of  the  rooms  in  each  tenement  as  well  as  in  tlieir  number,  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  different  conditions  of  the  families. 

The  standard  height  for  every  room  should  be  9  feet.  The  walls 
of  the  rooms  should  be  finished  in  some  hard  material,  for  which  pur¬ 
pose  Portland  cement  upon  brickwork,  or  brick  with  pressed  face  on 
both  sides,  should  be  used  up  to  a  height  of  about  3  feet  6  inches. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  walls  can  be  finished  by  a  thin  coating  of  hard 
plaster  upon  brickwork,  but  upon  this  i)oint  some  further  inquiry  is 
desirable. 

In  designing  the  buildings,  some  care  should  be  taken  to  give  a  pleas¬ 
ant  appearance  to  them. 

As  regards  the  interval  which  should  exist  between  any  block  of 
dwellings  and  the  nearest  building  obstructing  the  light  from  its  win¬ 
dows,  it  is  suggested  that,  if  practicable,  this  distance  should  be  equal 
to  one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  obstructing  building.  But 
it  does  not  appear  that  this  space  can,  in  view  of  the  cost  of  land,  be 
generally  provided.  Under  no  circumstances  should  a  nearer  distance 
than  the  height  of  the  buildings  be  allowed. 

MANCHESTER,  ENGLAND. 

As  it  is  the  main  purpose  of  this  work  to  select  models  rather  than 
to  present  a  variety  of  conditions,  the  requirements  of  Manchester, 
which  are  believed  to  be  among  the  most  advanced  of  any  city  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  are  selected  for  special  analysis. 

The  original  by-laws  with  respect  to  new  streets,  buildings,  etc.,  were 
passed  in  1890.  They  were  subsequently  revised  by  the  proper  sub¬ 
committee  in  1894,  and  as  amended  received  the  sanction  of  the  local 
government  board.  The  width  of  side  streets  is  fixed  at  a  minimum  of 
36  feet.  Back  alleys  to  be  used  for  removing  contents  of  privies  or  ash¬ 
pits  must  be  at  least  9  feet  wide,  and  communicate  directly  with  a  street. 
These  alleys  may  not  be  more  than  100  yards  long  without  making  con¬ 
nection  either  with  another  street  or  alley. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


101 


New  buildings  may  not  be  built  upon  sites  which  have  been  filled  in 
with  impregnated  material — that  is,  material  impregnated  with  faecal, 
vegetable,  oranimal  matter — without  such  matter havingbeen  excavated 
or  removed.  Where  the  site  shows  any  indication  of  dampness  the 
ground  surface  must  be  properly  asphalted  or  covered  with  cement  or 
concrete  at  least  6  inches  thick.  External  walls  must  be  of  brick, 
stone,  or  other  hard,  incombustible  materials.  The  mortar  used  must 
be  of  good  lime  and  clean,  sharp  sand,  in  proportion  of  two-thirds  of 
the  latter  to  one-third  of  the  former,  or  with  good  cement,  or  with  good 
cement  mixed  with  clean,  sharp  sand.  Exception  is  provided  in  the 
case  of  dwelling  houses  more  than  15  feet  from  any  adjoining  building, 
when  the  external  walls  may  be  constructed  of  timber  framing,  with 
the  spaces  filled  in  completely  with  brickwork  or  other  incombustible 
material.  There  must  also  be  brickwork  4£  inches  thick  placed  at  the 
back  of  every  portion  of  timber,  and  properly  bonded  to  the  brickwork 
filling  the  spaces  between  the  timbers. 

Where  a  new  building  forms  part  of  a  block  of  dwelling  houses,  not 
more  than  three  in  number,  and  where  each  is  separated  by  not  less 
than  15  feet  from  adjoining  buildings  not  in  the  same  curtilage  and 
not  forming  part  of  the  same  block,  party  walls  supporting  the  build¬ 
ings  must  project  1  inch  in  front  of  the  timber  framing.  Otherwise  the 
provisions  as  to  timber  framing,  filling,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  in  the  pre¬ 
ceding  cases.  Hollow  walls  are  allowed  on  the  exterior  if  constructed 
so  that  the  width  of  the  interior  cavity  does  not  exceed  3  inches,  and 
that  the  inner  and  outer  parts  of  the  wall  are  tied  together  with  suit¬ 
able  bonding  ties  of  galvanized  iron,  glazed  stoneware,  or  other  suitable 
material,  distributed  in  rows  not  more  than  18  inches  apart  vertically 
and  3  feet  horizontally.  The  materials  for  cross  walls  must  be  of  good 
brick,  stone,  or  other  hard  and  incombustible  materials,  bound  together 
with  mortar,  cement,  or  a  mixture  of  cement  and  sand.  Every  wall 
must  rest  upon  footings  constructed  in  regular  offsets,  the  projections 
of  which  shall  be  at  least  9  inches  on  each  side  of  the  wall  and  the 
height  not  less  than  12  inches.  Where  the  walls  are  less  than  18  inches 
thick  the  projection  may  be  half  the  thickness  on  each  side,  but  in 
height  two-thirds  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  Where  an  adjoining 
wall  interferes  with  the  projection  of  the  footings  on  one  side  that  pro¬ 
jection  may  be  omitted.  The  footings  must  rest  on  solid  ground,  or 
concrete,  or  some  other  solid  and  sufficient  substructure.  There  must 
be  a  damp  course  to  every  wall  of  sheet  lead  of  a  certain  specified 
weight,  asphalt  half  an  inch  thick,  slates  laid  in  cement,  or  other  dura¬ 
ble  material  impervious  to  moisture,  beneath  the  level  of  the  lowest 
timbers  and  at  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  adjoining  such 
wall.  Where  the  floor  of  the  lowest  story  of  a  dwelling  house  is  below 
the  level  of  the  adjoining  ground  which  is  immediately  in  contact  this 
story  must  be  inclosed  with  double  walls  having  an  intervening  cavity 
extending  6  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  being  at  least 
inches  wide  and  properly  ventilated.  If  the  cavity  is  filled  with 


102  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  1'HE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR 


asphalt  it  need  only  be  1  incli  wide.  The  parts  of  this  double  wall 
must  be  properly  tied  together  with  iron,  vitrified  stoneware,  or  other 
suitable  material,  inserted  at  distances  apart  not  exceeding  3  feet  hori¬ 
zontally  and  18  inches  vertically.  There  must  be  also  a  damp  course 
of  sheet  lead,  asphalt,  slates,  or  other  impervious  material  at  the  base 
of  such  wall,  and  likewise  at  the  top  of  the  cavity.  The  aggregate 
thickness  of  the  two  parts  of  the  double  wall,  exclusive  of  the  cavity, 
must  be  throughout  not  less  than  the  minimum  thickness  prescribed 
for  a  wall  of  the  same  height  and  length,  and  belonging  to  the  same 
class  of  buildings  as  that  to  which  the  double  walls  belong. 

After  fixing  the  regulations  for  measuring  the  heights  of  stories  and 
walls,  as  well  as  the  length  of  the  latter,  regulations  for  the  thickness 
of  the  walls  of  domestic  buildings  are  set  forth.  Where  the  wall  does 
not  exceed  25  feet  in  height  its  thickness  must  be  9  inches  throughout, 
if  the  length  does  not  exceed  30  feet.  If  the  wall  is  more  than  30  feet 
long  the  prescribed  thickness  is  14  inches  for  all  stories  except  the  top, 
which  must  have  a  wall  9  inches  thick.  The  thickness  for  walls  between 
25  and  30  feet  in  height,  and  not  exceeding  35  feet  in  length,  is  14  inches 
for  all  stories  except  the  two  topmost,  and  9  iuches  for  them.  Where 
the  wall  is  longer  than  35  feet,  and  not  more  than  30  feet  high,  the  14 
inch  limit  for  width  applies  to  all  except  the  topmost  story.  Where 
the  wall  is  between  30  and  40  feet  in  height,  and  not  more  than  35  feet 
long,  the  prescribed  thickness  is  14  inches,  and  9  inches  for  the  top 
story.  Where  longer  than  35  feet,  and  between  30  and  40  feet  in 
height,  the  prescribed  width  is  18  inches  for  the  first  story,  9  inches 
for  the  top,  and  14  inches  for  the  intervening  space.  Walls  between 
40  and  50  feet  high  must  have  the  following  widths:  When  not  exceed¬ 
ing  30  feet  in  length,  18  iuches  for  the  lowest  story,  9  inches  for  the 
highest,  and  14  inches  for  the  rest;  when  between  30  and  45  feet  in 
length,  18  inches  for  the  height  of  two  stories  and  14  inches  for  the 
rest;  when  more  than  45  feet  long,  22^  inches  for  the  lowest  story,  18 
inches  for  the  next,  and  14  iuches  thereafter.  When  between  50  and 
60  feet  high,  and  not  exceeding  45  feet  in  length,  the  walls  must  be  18 
inches  thick  for  the  height  of  two  stories  and  14  inches  for  the  rest; 
if  more  than  45  feet  long,  22^  inches  for  the  lowest  story,  18  inches  for 
the  next  two,  and  14  inches  to  the  top.  Walls  between  60  and  70  feet  in 
height,  and  not  longer  than  45  feet,  must  be  22£  inches  for  the  lowest  story, 
18  inches  for  the  next  two,  and  14  inches  for  the  rest;  if  longer  than  45 
feet  the  wall  is  increased  in  thickness  in  each  of  the  stories  below  the 
two  uppermost  by  4£  inches.  Between  70  and  80  feet  in  height,  and  less 
than  45  feet  in  length,  the  walls  must  be  22£  inches  for  the  first  story, 
18  inches  for  the  next  three,  and  14  inches  for  the  rest;  if  longer  than 
45  feet  the  width  is  increased  in  each  of  the  stories  below  the  two 
uppermost  by  4£  iuches.  Between  80  and  90  feet  in  height,  and  not 
longer  than  45  feet,  the  walls  must  be  27  inches  thick  for  the  first  story, 
22£  inches  for  the  second,  18  inches  for  the  next  three,  and  14  inches 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


103 


for  the  rest;  if  longer  than  45  feet  the  increase  in  each  of  the  stories 
below  the  two  uppermost  is  4 4  inches.  Walls  between  90  and  100  feet 
high,  and  not  more  than  45  feet  long,  must  be  27  inches  thick  for  the 
first  story,  for  the  next  two  22£  inches,  for  the  next  three  18  inches,  and 
for  the  rest  14  inches;  if  longer  than  45  feet  the  width  is  increased  in 
each  of  the  stories  below  the  two  uppermost  by  44  inches. 

Every  external  and  every  party  wall  of  any  story,  exceeding  11  feet 
in  height  and  30  feet  in  length,  must  not  be  less  than  14  inches  in 
thickness  in  all  cases  where  the  foregoing  rules  call  for  9  inches.  The 
requirements  for  cross  walls  are  that  they  shall  be  at  least  two-thirds 
of  the  thickness  prescribed  for  external  or  party  walls  of  the  same 
height  and  length,  with  a  minimum  thickness,  however,  fixed  at  9 
inches.  Where  tbe  cross  wall  supports  a  superincumbent  external 
wall  it  must  have  the  same  thickness  as  an  external  or  party  wall  of 
the  same  height  and  length.  Wherever  external,  party,  or  cross  walls 
are  constructed  of  stone,  vitrified,  or  burnt  material,  the  beds  or 
courses  not  being  horizontal,  their  thickness  must  be  one-third  greater 
than  the  specifications  already  noted.  Party  walls  must  be  carried  up 
to  the  roofing  materials,  the  slates  or  other  covering  of  the  roof  to  be 
properly  and  solidly  bedded  in  mortar  or  cement  on  the  top  of  the  wall. 

Whenever  openings  in  external  walls  in  any  of  the  stories  are  greater 
than  one-half  of  the  whole  extent  of  the  vertical  face,  piers  of  brickwork 
or  other  fireproof  supports  must  be  so  disposed  as  to  carry  the  super¬ 
structure.  Piers  of  this  kind  must  also  be  placed  at  the  corner  or 
angle  of  any  street  on  which  the  building  abuts.  Openings  in  party 
walls  are  forbidden.  Certain  requirements  as  to  beams  exist  which  are 
designed  to  have  an  important  effect  in  adding  to  structural  solidity. 
Stopping  walls  of  brickwork,  concrete,  or  other  fireproof  material  must 
be  made  between  the  joists  at  every  floor  and  ceiling. 

Chimneys  must  be  built  on  solid  foundations.  Flues  must  be  lined 
with  fireproof  piping  1  inch  thick  or  pointed  with  good  mortar;  the 
outside,  where  it  does  not  form  part  of  the  face  of  an  external  wall, 
must  also  be  rendered  wherever  its  brickwork  is  less  than  9  inches 
thick.  The  thickness  of  brickwork  about  chimney  flues  is  fixed  at  44 
inches.  The  back  of  any  chimney  opening  in  a  party  wall  of  any  room 
occupied  as  a  kitchen  must  be  9  inches  thick  to  the  height  of  6  feet 
above  such  chimney  opening;  the  back  of  other  chimney  openings, 
from  the  hearth  to  a  height  of  12  inches  above  such  opening,  must  be 
4£  inches  thick  if  such  opening  is  in  an  external  wall;  9  inches  thick  if 
elsewhere  than  in  an  external  wall.  The  upper  side  of  every  flue  run¬ 
ning  at  an  angle  of  less  than  45  degrees  must  be  at  least  9  inches 
thick.  The  arches  of  flues  must  be  supported  by  iron  bars  securely 
put  into  the  wall.  The  minimum  height  of  chimneys  above  the  roof 
is  3  feet,  and  the  maximum  six  times  the  least  width  of  the  chimney 
shaft.  No  timber  or  woodwork  may  be  placed  nearer  than  9  inches  to 
the  inside  of  any  flue,  or  within  6  inches  of  any  hot-air  opening,  hot- 


104  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


water  or  steam  pipe.  A  wooden  plug  may  not  be  driven  into  the  wall 
nearer  than  6  inches  to  the  inside  of  any  chimney  opening.  A  smoke 
pipe  may  not  run  nearer  than  14  inches  to  any  combustible  material. 

The  construction  of  gutters  or  eaves  drops  in  every  case  is  obliga¬ 
tory.  Proper  provision  for  fastening  and  overlapping  of  slates  where 
they  are  used  on  the  roof  is  made.  There  are  detailed  provisions  cov¬ 
ering  the  strength  of  rafters,  purlins,  and  roofing  supports  which  are 
too  technical  to  bear  repetition.  The  same  may  be  said  of  supports 
of  beams,  joists,  and  supports  of  floors.  As  regards  floors,  whenever 
the  clear  bearing  exceeds  18  feet,  an  iron  or  steel  beam  of  proper  size 
and  strength  must  be  used. 

The  height  of  dwelling  rooms  not  used  as  sleeping  rooms  or  sculleries 
is  fixed  at  9  feet.  Nine  feet  is  the  minimum  limit  of  height  fixed  also 
for  sleeping  rooms  in  any  part  of  the  house  other  than  the  attic.  Attic 
sleeping  rooms  must  be  not  less  than  5  feet  in  height  in  any  part,  and 
two-thirds  of  the  superficial  area  of  the  room  must  be  of  a  height  of 
not  less  than  9  feet.  Eight  feet  is  fixed  as  the  minimum  height  of 
sculleries. 

Cellars  of  dwelling  houses,  in  every  case,  must  be  paved  with  hard 
material,  impervious  to  moisture,  and  laid  with  a  sufficient  bed  of  good 
cement  concrete,  etc.  The  floor  must  also  be  sloped  to  a  properly  con¬ 
structed  channel  leading  to  a  trapped  gulley  gratingoutside  the  build¬ 
ing  so  that  waste  water  may  be  effectually  carried  off. 

The  minimum  width  of  streets  is,  as  has  already  been  noted,  36  feet. 
At  the  rear  of  every  new  dwelling  house,  at  least  150  square  feet  of  open 
space,  free  from  any  erection  thereon,  must  be  provided;  the  width  of 
the  oi>en  space  to  be  not  less  that  10  feet.  Where  the  height  of  a 
dwelling  house  is  15  feet,  a  width  of  15  feet  is  enjoined,  where  the 
dwelling  house  is  28  feet  high,  the  width  of  the  open  space  must  be  20 
feet,  and  where  the  dwelling  house  is  35  feet  high  and  over,  the  width 
of  the  open  space  must  be  at  least  25  feet. 

A  sufficient  number  of  windows  to  secure  ventilation  must  be  con¬ 
structed  in  the  walls  abutting  on  the  open  spaces.  In  the  lowest  story 
of  dwelling  houses,  where  the  ground  surface  has  been  covered  with 
asphalt  or  concrete,  a  ventilating  space  3  inches  wide  is  made  under 
the  floors;  and  a  ventilating  space  6  inches  wide  where  no  ground  sur¬ 
face  covering  has  been  made.  The  system  of  ventilation  recommended 
is  through  suitable  and  sufficient  air  bricks.  Every  habitable  room 
must  have  at  least  one  window  opening  directly  to  the  external  air; 
and  the  total  area  of  window  space,  clear  of  sash  frames,  must  be  equal 
to  one- tenth  of  the  floor  space  of  the  room.  Windows  must  be  so  con¬ 
structed  that  they  may  be  opened  at  least  one-half;  the  opening  in 
every  case  to  extend  to  the  top  of  the  window.  Special  and  adequate 
means  of  ventilation  in  rooms  without  a  fireplace  are  required  through 
an  aperture  or  air  shaft  near  the  ceiling  which  shall  provide  a  clear  area 
of  1  square  inch  to  every  60  cubic  feet  of  space  the  room  incloses. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


105 


New  buildings  can  not  be  erected  without  the  subsoil  of  the  site  being 
effectually  drained  wherever  dampness  is  present.  Subsoil  drains 
must  be  trapped,  and  down  spouts  for  receiving  water  from  the  roof 
and  carrying  it  into  a  properly  constructed  drain  must  also  be  provided. 
Glazed  stoneware  or  earthenware  pipes  are  recommended  as  suitable 
material  for  drains.  The  lowest  story  of  new  buildings  must  be  placed 
at  a  level  above  the  sewer  to  allow  the  construction  of  a  drain  sufficient 
for  the  drainage  of  such  buildings  and  provide  the  requisite  communi¬ 
cation  with  any  sewer  iuto  which  such  drain  may  empty.  If  drains  are 
adapted  to  carrying  or  conveying  sewage  they  must  have  an  internal 
diameter  of  not  less  than  4  inches,  with  a  proper  fall  and  with  water¬ 
tight  joints,  and  where  necessary  they  must  be  laid  on  a  bed  of  concrete. 
Drains  may  pass  under  buildings  only  where  any  other  mode  of  con¬ 
struction  is  impracticable,  and  when  they  do  so  they  must  be  laid  in  a 
direct  line  and  12  inches  below  the  surface,  completely  embedded  in 
concrete  G  inches  thick  .all  around.  Inlets  to  drains  must  be  properly 
trapped.  Drains  which  directly  communicate  with  any  sewer  must 
also  be  trapped.  There  may  be  no  right  angle  junctions  in  drains, 
either  vertical  or  horizontal;  they  must  join  another  drain  obliquely 
in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  such  drain.  Ventilation  of  house 
drains  must  conform  to  very  stringent  provisions.  There  must  be  at 
least  two  untrapped  openings,  one  near  the  level  of  the  surface  of 
the  ground  communicating  with  the  drains  by  means  of  a  pipe  shaft  or 
disconnecting  chamber,  and  situated  as  near  as  practicable  to  the  trap. 
The  opening  must  in  every  case  be  placed  on  that  side  of  the  trap 
which  is  nearer  to  the  building.  The  second  opening  is  obtained  by 
carrying  up  at  the  farthest  practicable  point  from  that  where  the  first 
one  is  situated  a  vertical  pipe  or  shaft,  run  to  such  a  height  as  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  escape  of  foul  air  into  any  building  in  the  neighborhood. 
Openings  must  be  provided  with  suitable  gratings  or  covers  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  introduction  of  any  obstructing  substance,  and  be  so  con¬ 
structed  and  fitted  that  the  free  passage  of  air.  may  take  place. 
Ventilating  shafts  or  pipes  must  have  a  sectional  area  of  not  less  than 
dti e  half  of  that  of  the  drain  with  which  they  communicate,  and  in  no 
case  a  diameter  of  less  than  4  inches.  There  must  be  neither  bend 
nor  angle  in  the  shafts  except  where  absolutely  unavoidable.  Where 
the  soil  pipe  of  a  water-closet  has  been  constructed  in  accordance  with 
the  requirements  applicable  to  ventilating  shafts  last  mentioned,  it 
may  be  used  for  such  purposes. 

There  must  be  no  inlet  to  drains  within  buildings  except  from  the 
apparatus  of  any  water-closet.  The  soil  pipe  from  every  water-closet 
must  be  at  least  4  inches  in  diameter,  to  be  fixed  outside  the  build¬ 
ing  and  continue  upward  to  a  sufficient  height  above  the  roof. 
There  shall  be  no  trap  between  such  soil  pipe  and)  the  drains,  or  any 
trap  in  any  part  of  such  soil  pipe,  other  than  such  as  necessarily  forms 
part  of  any  water-closet  apparatus.  Waste  pipes  from  sinks  and  lava- 


106  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


tories,  overflow  pipes  from  cisterns,  and  every  pipe  for  carrying  olf 
waste  water,  must  discharge  through  an  external  wall  of  the  building 
into  the  open  air  over  a  channel  leading  to  a  trapped  gulley  grating  at 
least  18  inches  distant.  The  waste  pipes  from  slop  sinks  used  for 
purposes  of  receiving  any  solid  or  liquid  filth  are  subject  to  the  provi¬ 
sions  applicable  to  soil  pi  pes  from  water-closets. 

Water-closets  or  earth  closets  must  be  so  constructed  that  one  of  the 
sides  shall  be  an  external  wall.  When  within  buildings  they  must  be 
provided  with  one  window  not  smaller  than  2  feet  by  1  foot,  and  opening 
directly  to  the  external  air.  There  must  also  be  one  or  more  air  bricks 
built  in  the  external  wall  of  the  closet,  or  else  a  special  airshaft  must 
be  provided  to  furnish  permanent  ventilation.  Water-closets  must 
have  a  flushing  apparatus  of  adequate  capacity,  and  a  water  supply 
distinct  from  that  for  domestic  use.  They  must  have  basins  of  non¬ 
absorbent  material,  and  so  constructed  that  whatever  is  deposited  may 
fall  free  from  the  sides  directly  into  the  water.  Containers  and  D-traps 
are  prohibited.  Earth  closets  are  required  to  be  supplied  with  mova¬ 
ble  receptacles,  covered  in  to  prevent  exposure  to  rainfall  or  drainage 
from  adjoining  premises,  and  provided  with  an  apparatus  for  supplying 
dry  earth  or  other  deodorizing  substance  in  sufficient  quantities.  Where 
privies  exist  they  shall  not  be  constructed  within  6  feet  of  a  dwelling 
house,  or  100  feet  from  a  water  supply  for  drinking  or  domestic  pur¬ 
poses. 

Every  person  who  intends  to  erect  a  building  must  give  the  corpora¬ 
tion  notice  of  such  intention,  the  notice  to  be  sent  to  the  city  surveyor. 
At  the  same  time,  he  must  send  to  the  city  surveyor  complete  plans 
of  such  intended  building,  drawn  on  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  every  8  feet, 
showing  the  position,  form,  and  dimensions  of  the  several  parts  of 
such  building,  and  whether  it  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  dwelling  house 
or  otherwise.  The  city  surveyor  must  also  be  furnished  a  description 
in  writing  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is  intended  such  building  shall 
be  constructed,  and  the  intended  mode  of  drainage  and  means  of  water 
supply.  Such  person  must  at  the  same  time  also  deliver  to  the  city  sur¬ 
veyor  a  block  plan  of  such  building,  drawn  on  a  scale  of  1  inch  to  every 
44  feet  and  showing  the  buildings  and  appurtenances  on  immediately 
adjoining  properties,  the  width  and  level  of  the  street  in  front,  at  the 
sides,  and  of  any  street  or  passage  at  the  rear ;  also  the  level  of  the 
lowest  floor,  and  of  any  ground  or  yard  belonging  thereto.  The  lines 
of  drainage,  together  with  size,  depth,  and  inclination  of  drains,  as  well 
as  the  details  of  ventilation,  must  also  appear. 

The  yards  or  open  spaces  in  connection  with  dwelling  houses,  to  the 
extent  of  150  square  feet,  must  be  properly  paved  with  durable  and 
impervious  pavement,  laid  closely  and  evenly  and  sloped  to  a  channel 
leading  to  a  trapped  gulley  grating  so  as  to  carry  olf  all  rain  and  waste 
water.  This  pavement  is  to  be  so  arranged  that  it  shall  adjoin  the 
external  wall  in  the  rear  or  at  the  side  of  the  house,  and  where  practi¬ 
cable  it  shall  extend  throughout  to  a  distance  of  10  feet  from  said  wall. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


107 


Every  chimney  opening  must  have  a  hearth  or  fireplace  of  stone, 
slate,  bricks,  tiles,  or  other  incombustible  material,  0  inches  longer  at 
each  end  than  the  width  of  the  opening,  and  projecting  not  less  than 
18  inches  from  the  chimney  breast.  The  hearth  is  to  be  laid  at  the  level 
of  the  floor  upon  stone  or  iron  bearers,  or  upon  a  layer  of  good  cement 
concrete  at  least  3  inches  thick.  If  the  hearth  is  fixed  about  timber  work 
there  must  be  concrete  of  not  less  than  4  inches  between  such  timber 
work  and  the  hearth. 

The  owner  of  habitable  premises  is  obliged  to  make  adequate  pro¬ 
vision  for  water  with  which  to  flush  water  closets,  and  the  occupier  must 
see  that  the  supply  is  kept  up.  This  latter  provision  applies  to  all 
buildings  in  the  city  without  exception,  no  matter  at  what  time  erected. 

Buildings  which  have  been  constructed  in  accordance  with  by-laws 
made  under  the  public  health  acts  may  not  be  altered  in  such  a  way 
that  they  would  contravene  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

At  least  twenty-four  hours’  notice  to  the  city  surveyor  must  be  given 
before  sewers,  drains,  or  foundations  of  buildings  are  covered  up. 
Buildings  in  process  of  construction  must  be  open  to  inspection  at  any 
time  before  completion.  When  finished,  a  written  notice  must  be  sent 
to  the  city  surveyor,  which  shall  at  all  reasonable  times,  for  a  period 
of  seven  days,  afford  him  free  access  to  such  building  for  the  purpose 
of  inspection.  Before  dwelling  houses  may  be  let  or  occupied  they 
must  be  certified  by  the  proper  officers  to  be  in  every  respect  fit  for 
human  habitation. 

The  penalty  for  the  infringement  of  any  preceding  provision  is  fixed 
at  £5  ($24.33),  and  £2  ($9.73)  for  each  day  of  the  continuation  of  the 
offense.  Justices  of  the  peace  may  mitigate  the  punishment  somewhat 
by  providing  fines  of  a  less  sum.  Work  done  in  contravention  of  the 
by-laws  may  be  altered,  pulled  down,  or  removed  if  after  due  notice  the 
offending  party  fails  to  appear  and  show  sufficient  cause  why  such 
work  should  not  be  altered,  pulled  down,  or  removed.  If  there  is  a 
reasonable  presumption  that  the  provisions  of  the  law  have  not  been 
fully  carried  out,  the  city  surveyor  is  authorized  to  have  any  work 
opened  up  in  order  to  inspect  it. 

PARIS,  FRANCE. 

The  building  laws  of  Paris,  as  yet,  pay  hardly  any  attention  to 
hygiene,  but  deal  almost  exclusively  with  security.  Dr.  A.  J.  Martin 
intends  soon  to  organize  a  service  to  look  after  hygienic  requirements 
in  new  houses. 

The  height  of  buildings  bordering  on  public  streets  in  Paris  is  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  width  of  the  streets,  and  is  measured  from  the  sidewalk  to 
the  highest  point  of  the  front.  The  height  can  not  exceed  12  meters 
(39.37  feet)  for  streets  7.80  meters  (25.59  feet)  wide,  15  meters  (49.21 
feet)  for  streets  from  7.80  to  9.74  meters  (25.59  to  31.96  feet)  wide,  18 


108  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

meters  (59.05  feet)  for  streets  from  9.74  to  20  meters  (31.96  to  65.62  feet) 
wide,  and  20  meters  (65.62  feet)  for  streets  above  20  meters  (65.62  feet) 
wide.  Buildings  in  any  case  may  not  comprise  more  tlian  seven  stories, 
not  including  the  ground  floor.  The  ground  floor  story  must  not  be 
less  than  2.80  meters  (9.19  feet)  in  height.  The  height  of  the  other 
stories  and  the  basement  must  not  be  less  than  2.60  meters  (8.53  feet). 
In  case  of  attics  it  is  sufficient  if  the  highest  part  is  2.60  meters  (8.53 
feet)  in  height.  Courts  of  buildings  not  more  than  18  meters  (59.05 
feet)  high  must  have  a  surface  of  not  less  than  30  square  meters 
(322.92  square  feet)  with  an  average  width  of  not  less  than  5  meters 
(16.40  feet).  In  buildings  more  than  18  meters  (59.05  feet)  high,  with 
wings  not  over  18  meters  (59.05  feet)  high,  the  courts  are  required  to 
have  a  surface  of  at  least  40  square  meters  (430.55  square  feet)  and  an 
average  width  of  at  least  5  meters  (16.40  feet);  but  if  the  wings  also 
are  more  than  18  meters  (59.05  feet)  high,  the  courts  are  required  to 
have  a  surface  of  at  least  60  square  meters  (645.83  square  feet)  and  an 
average  width  of  at  least  6  meters  (19.69  feet).  Small  courts  afford¬ 
ing  light  and  air  to  kitchens  must  have  at  least  9  square  meters  (96.88 
square  feet)  of  surface  and  an  average  width  of  1.80  meters  (5.91  feet). 
Small  courts  affording  light  and  air  exclusively  to  water-closets,  vesti¬ 
bules,  or  corridors  must  have  at  least  4  square  meters  (43.06  square 
feet)  of  surface,  and  at  no  point  be  less  than  1.60  meters  (5.25  feet) 
wide.  It  is  forbidden  to  construct  glass  roofs  in  courts  above  the  parts 
to  be  supplied  with  light  and  air,  no  matter  whether  these  are  living 
rooms,  kitchens,  or  water-closets,  unless  there  be  provided  a  ventilat¬ 
ing  window  with  vertical  faces  in  which  the  opening  shall  be  at  least 
one-third  of  the  surface  of  the  court  and  not  less  than  40  centimeters 
(1.31  feet)  in  height,  and  unless  there  be  constructed  at  the  lower  part 
openings  of  at  least  8  decimeters  (2.62  feet)  square  admitting  air  to  the 
basement  and  cellars.  Every  builder,  before  commencing  work,  must 
send  to  the  prefecture  of  the  Seine  a  plan  of  the  proposed  buildings, 
and  submit  to  whatever  prescriptions  may  be  imposed  in  the  interests 
of  public  security  and  health.  Twenty  days  afterwards  he  may  com¬ 
mence  building  if  he  receives  no  notification  to  the  contrary.  A  geo¬ 
logical  chart  of  the  excavations  for  the  foundation  must  be  sent  by 
building  architects  to  the  prefecture  of  the  Seine.  Fronts  of  buildings 
must  always  be  kept  in  good  condition.  They  must  be  scraped, 
repainted,  or  washed  at  least  once  in  every  ten  years,  under  penalty 
of  a  fine  not  exceeding  100  francs  ($19.30). 

BRUSSELS,  BELGIUM. 

In  Brussels  the  plans  of  all  houses  must  be  presented  to  the  author¬ 
ities  and  approved  by  them  before  structures  can  be  built.  The  ceil¬ 
ings  must  be  9£  feet  high,  a  regulation  which  recalls  the  time-honored 
practice  of  Scotch  cities  in  insisting  on  10  feet.  With  the  greatest  dif¬ 
ficulty  the  authorities  of  Glasgow  have  recently  succeeded  in  reducing 
the  minimum  to  9  feet. 


CHAPTER  VI.— BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


109 


BERLIN,  GERMANY. 

In  Berlin  building  may  not  be  done  in  advance  of  the  sewerage  of 
land.  Purchase  at  a  reasonable  price  can  only  be  made  before  the  city 
completes  the  canalization. 

The  following  is  a  digest  of  the  building  regulations  enforced  in  the 
German  capital,  the  first  chapter  of  which  embraces  municipal  require* 
ments  and  restrictions: 

1.  Communication  ivith  the  street. — Asa  rule  buildings  should  be  erected  only  on 
such  plots  of  ground  as  border  on  a  public  street.  Fronts  of  buildings  must  be 
erected  on  the  building  line  or  parallel  thereto.  Buildings  erected  on  a  line  situ¬ 
ated  more  than  30  meters  (98.43  feet)  back  of  the  building  line  must  have  their 
wings  or  their  rear  buildings  connected  by  au  .alley  of  at  least  2.30  meters  (7.55  feet) 
width  in  the  clear,  or  by  a  passageway  through  tho  front  building  of  at  least  2.80 
meters  (9.19  feet)  height  in  the  clear  and  2.30  meters  (7.55  feet)  width  in  the  clear. 

Special  permits  must  be  obtained  from  the  municipal  government  for  the  erection 
of  buildings  on  plots  of  ground  not  bordering  on  a  public  street,  or  where  the  rise  in 
the  rear  of  the  building  line  exceeds  a  ratio  of  1  in  20,  or  where  the  buildings  to  bo 
erected  are  of  a  greater  depth  than  50  meters  (164.01  feet.) 

2.  How  much  ground  mag  he  covered  hy  buildings  in  a  plot  of  ground — Court  or  yard 
room. — Plots  of  ground  that  never  were  used  for  building  purposes  may  be  covered 
by  buildings  up  to  two-thirds  of  their  extent,  such  as  were  formerly  covered  may  be 
covered  (namely,  rebuilt  upon)  to  three-quarters  of  their  extent. 

Courts  or  yards  of  at  least  60  square  meters  (645.83  square  feet)  must  be  provided, 
the  smallest  dimension  to  be  not  less  than  6  meters  (19.69  feet),  and  so  distributed  that 
the  buildings  between  the  various  courts  do  not  exceed  18  meters  (59.05  feet)  in  depth. 
In  the  case  of  a  corner  lot  the  court  may  be  reduced  to  40  square  meters  (430.55 
square  feet).  Existing  courts  in  those  lots,  however,  can  not  be  reduced  to  less  than 
60  square  meters  (645.83  square  feet).  Plots  of  ground  now  improved  by  buildings 
covering  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  area,  may  in  case  of  rebuilding  be  used 
again  to  the  same  extent  as  before. 

In  the  case  of  rebuilding  on  a  plot  of  ground  which  extends  to  a  depth  of  less 
than  15  meters  (49.21  feet)  in  the  rear  of  the  building  line  court  or  yard  space  need 
not  be  allowed  if  the  fronting  street  is  at  least  as  wide  as  the  building  to  be  erected 
is  to  be  high,  and  if  all  rooms  intended  for  habitation  derive  light  and  air  exclu¬ 
sively  from  the  street,  provided  that  the  window  surface  is  equal  to  at  least  one- 
seventh  of  the  floor  space.  Fronts  of  rear  buildings,  or  side  wings  or  the  rear  wall 
of  the  main  building  (if  provided  with  windows),  must  face  an  open  court. 

3.  Height. — All  buildings  may  be  erected  in  the  front  to  a  height  of  12  meters  (39.37 
feet)  and  not  more  than  22  meters  (72.18  feet). 

a.  Buildings  on  streets  may  be  constructed  as  high  as  the  street  is  wide  between 
the  two  building  lines.  Extensions  from  the  roof,  such  as  cornices,  etc.,  if  exceed¬ 
ing  50  centimeters  (1.64  feet)  must  be  deducted  from  tho  height.  In  streets  where 
buildings  are  to  be  erected  on  one  side  only  the  height  may  be  carried  to  22  meters 
(72.18  feet).  If  the  width  of  the  street  is  variable,  or  if  the  building  fronts  on  sev¬ 
eral  streets,  a  mean  height  should  be  adopted  for  it,  unless  it  should  be  preferred  to 
give  the  building  various  heights,  according  to  frontage.  Front  buildings  standing 
entirely  or  partly  in  the  rear  of  the  regular  building  line  may,  in  exceptional  cases, 
be  erected  to  a  greater  height. 

b.  Rear  buildings  and  side  wings  facing  a  court  must  not  exceed  in  height  the 
dimensions  thereof  hy  more  than  6  meters  (19.69  feet) ;  if  the  court  is  irregular  in 
shape  an  average  height  must  be  established. 


110  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Buildings  covering  a  surface  of  not  more  than  40  square  meters  (430.55  square  feet) 
and  reaching  a  height  of  not  more  than  5  meters  (16.40  feet)  do  not  enter  into  con¬ 
sideration  when  the  permissible  height  of  the  front  walls  of  the  rear  buildings  or 
side  wings  is  being  determined. 

o.  In  those  cases  where  a  rebuilding  on  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  area  of 
the  plot  is  contemplated  the  height  of  14  meters  (45.93  feet)  m  ist  not  be  exceeded. 

A  greater  height,  exceeding  14  meters  (45.93  feet),  which,  however,  must  not  sur¬ 
pass  the  height  of  the  buildings  to  be  torn  down  and  will  also  conform  for  the  parts 
fronting  on  the  street  to  the  restrictions  laid  down  in  paragraph  a  of  this  section 
may  be  permitted  on  condition  that  in  such  buildings  only  such  rooms  shall  be  set 
apart  for  purposes  of  permanent  habitation  by  human  beings  as  derive  a  sufficient 
supply  of  light  and  air  from  the  court.  The  floors  of  these  rooms  must  be  placed  at 
an  elevation  equal  in  extent  to  the  width  of  the  court,  and  this  measurement  is  to  be 
taken  from  the  top  plate  or  attic  floor  of  the  building.  [It  is  apparent  from  this  that 
the  wider  the  court  is  the  lower  down  the  floors  of  living  rooms  may  be  laid,  namely, 
if  the  court  is  20  feet  wide,  the  lowest  floor  for  living  rooms  can  not  be  lower  than  20 
feet  downward  from  the  top  plate.  Should  the  court  be  30  feet  wide,  the  floors  may 
be  laid  at  a  distance  of  30  feet,  measuring  downward  from  the  top  plate.] 

d.  In  rebuilding,  the  former  height  of  the  building  may  be  allowed  if  it  does  not 
exceed  22  meters  (72.18  feet). 

In  using  the  term  “  height”  it  must  be  understood  that  all  elevations  are  calculated 
from  the  surface  of  the  sidewalk  or  the  court  pavement  close  to  the  building  up  to 
the  top  edge  of  the  main  cornice.  Where  there  is  an  inclined  plane  either  of  the 
sidewalk  or  the  court,  the  height  shall  be  determined  by  an  average  measurement 
between  the  highest  and  the  lowest  point. 

Roofs  shall  not  have  a  greater  pitch  than  45  degrees.  Towers,  gables,  dormers, 
etc.,  must  not  exceed  in  height  one-fifth  of  the  height  of  the  building  and  not  occupy 
together  more  than  5  meters  (16.40  feet)  in  width.  This  regulation  applies  to  fronts 
facing  the  street. 

4.  Distance  between  buildings. — There  must  be  a  free  space  left  between  all  buildings 
not  immediately  adjoining,  as  follows:  A  space  of  at  least  2.50  meters  (8.20  feet)  in 
width  where  the  opposite  walls  have  no  openings;  a  space  of  at  least  6  meters 
(19.69  feet)  where  there  are  openings  in  the  opposite  walls. 

5.  Massive  walls — (a)  In  general. — Main  inclosing  walls,  walls  carrying  heavy 
weights,  and  all  projecting  structures  must  be  erected  massively,  unless  excepted  by 
sections  6  and  7. 

Stairways  (see  also  section  14)  must  be  inclosed  within  massive  walls,  which  shall 
not  have  more  openings  than  are  absolutely  necessary  for  purposes  of  communication 
and  lighting.  In  the  case  of  adjoining  stairways,  no  communication  between  them 
shall  be  allowed  in  the  partition  wall. 

In  the  interior  of  buildings  massive  fire  walls  must  be  built  at  a  distance  of  not 
more  than  40  meters  (131.23  feet)  from  each  other,  not  less  than  25  centimeters 
(9.84  inches)  thick,  extending  throughout  the  whole  depth  of  the  building,  running 
through  every  story,  and  extending  at  least  20  centimeters  (7.87  inches)  above  the 
roof;  communicating  openings  in  the  garret  lodgings  must  be  provided  with  self¬ 
closing  iron  doors. 

In  exceptional  cases — that  is  to  say,  in  cases  where  the  particular  uses  for  which 
the  building  is  intended  would  be  interfered  with  by  such  walls — their  erection  may 
be  omitted. 

(b)  On  adjoining  properties  in  particular. — If  buildings  are  erected  up  to  the  neigh¬ 
boring  limit  line,  or  where  the  distance  therefrom  is  less  than  6  meters  (19.69 
feet),  such  buildings  must  be  provided  with  fire  walls  constructed  as  detailed  in  para¬ 
graph  a  of  this  section,  and  no  openings  will  be  permitted  therein.  For  obtaining 
light  in  the  interior  of  a  building,  openings  measuring  not  more  than  500  square 
centimeters  (77.50  square  inches)  and  closed  with  walled-in  glass  plates  of  at  least 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


Ill 


1  centimeter  (0.39  inch)  in  thickness  may  he  permitted,  provided  that  not  more  than 
one  of  these  shall  occur  in  every  3  meters’  (9.84  feet)  wall  length  in  every  story. 

Neighboring  buildings  which  join  on  the  limit  line  must  each  be  provided  with  a 
boundary  wall  erected  according  to  the  foregoing  regulations. 

In  exceptional  cases  communicating  openings  between  the  neighboring  buildings 
may  be  permitted,  but  then  they  must  be  provided  with  self-closing  iron  doors. 

6.  Brick-nogged  buildings. — Buildings  not  exceeding  a  length  of  12  meters  (39.37 
feet),  a  depth  of  8  meters  (26.25  feet),  and  a  front  height  of  6  meters  (19.69  feet)  may 
be  brick-nogged  instead  of  erected  with  massive  walls. 

The  inclosing  walls  of  brick-nogged  buildings,  if  situated  less  than  6  meters  (19.69 
feet)  from  public  streets,  from  the  limits  of  neighboring  property,  or  from  other 
buildings  on  the  same  plot  of  ground,  must  be  covered  by  a  cement  facing,  massively 
put  on,  to  a  thickness  of  at  least  12  centimeters  (4.72  inches). 

Beyond  the  foregoing  regulations  permission  for  the  erection  of  brick-nogged 
buildings  shall  be  given  only  in  exceptional  cases  and  for  temporary  use.  In  these 
cases  brick-nogged  buildings  may  be  erected  at  a  distance  of  at  least  6  meters  (19.69 
feet)  from  each  other. 

7.  Wooden  structures. — Only  sheds,  booths,  and  similar  structures,  which  can  not 
be  regarded  as  habitations  inroper,  may  be  erected  with  wooden  inclosing  walls. 

They  should,  as  a  rule,  not  exceed  a  surface  of  25  square  meters  (269.10  square 
feet),  a  front  height  of  3  meters  (9.84  feet),  and  be  separated  from  other  wooden 
structures,  neighboring  limits,  or  public  streets  by  a  distance  of  at  least  6  meters 
(19.69  feet). 

Beyond  this  the  erection  of  wooden  buildings  will  be  tolerated  only  in  exceptional 
cases  and  for  transient  purposes.  Fireproof  covering  or  cementing  of  the  outer 
walls  niay  be  prescribed. 

8.  Partition  icalls. — Wooden  partition  walls  in  the  interior  of  buildings  must  be 
covered  with  a  coat  of  plastering  or  protected  iu  some  other  efficient  manner  against 
transmission  of  fire.  Hollow  spaces  between  wooden  partition  walls  must  be  filled 
with  some  incombustible  material.  Partition  walls  in  garrets  and  cellars  need  not 
be  plastered. 

9.  Ceilings. — Counter  ceilings  must  be  made  and  the  space  between  the  joists  filled 
with  incombustible  material  to  a  thickness  of  at  least  13  centimeters  (5.12  inches); 
the  under  side  may  be  plastered  or  covered  with  some  other  equally  fireproof 
material. 

The  material  used  for  filling  in  between  joists  or  in  vaults  must  not  be  contami¬ 
nated  by  any  organic  substance  deleterious  to  health,  and  particularly  is  the  use  of 
rubbish  of  any  kind  from  buildings  prohibited. 

Other  ceiling  constructions  must  correspond  in  an  equally  efficacious  manner  to 
the  demands  of  security  against  fire  and  to  the  requirements  of  hygiene. 

Ceilings  constructed  in  accordance  with  these  regulations  may  be  lined  with 
wooden  parquetry. 

In  buildings  without  fireplaces  the  ceilings  may  be  made  of  unplastered  wood¬ 
work. 

10.  Roofing. — The  roofs  of  all  buildings,  including  all  wooden  constructions  (see 
section  7),  must  be  covered  with  some  material  which  will  not  permit  the  transmis¬ 
sion  of  fire  (stone,  metal,  tar  paper,  wood  cement,  glass,  etc.). 

Openings  in  roofs,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  the  neighboring  limits,  are  subjected 
to  the  same  regulations  that  govern  openings  in  the  inclosing  walls  (see  section 
5  b).  This  requirement,  however,  does  not  apply  to  light  shafts. 

According  to  the  condition  and  position  of  the  roofs,  the  right  to  prescribe  addi¬ 
tional  regulations  against  the  falling  oft-  of  ice  and  snow  is  reserved. 

11.  Projecting  parts  of  buildings. — Projections  extending  beyond  the  inclosing  walls 
and  the  roofs  are  subject  (as  far  as  the  material  is  concerned)  to  the  same  regula¬ 
tions  that  govern  the  inclosing  walls  and  the  roofs  themselves. 


112  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Roof  cornices,  however,  may  be  made  of  wood,  provided  that  up  to  1  meter  (3.28 
feet)  distance  from  a  neighboring  building  fireproof  material  is  used. 

Ornaments  made  of  stucco,  statuary  pasteboard,  cement  castings,  etc.,  are  not 
allowed  to  be  fastened  against  wood  on  the  outer  fronts,  but  must  be  securely  united 
with  the  masonry. 

Projections  of  roof  constructions  beyond  the  cornices  will  be  permitted  only  when 
absolutely  safe. 

12.  Projections  of  individual  parts  beyond  the  building  line — (a)  On  sidewalks. — The 
projection  of  parts  of  the  building  onto  the  sidewalk  and  up  to  a  height  of  3  meters 
(9.84  feet)  above  it  is  not  permissible,  unless  a  space  of  3  meters  (9.84  feet)  sidewalk 
at  least  is  left  for  passers.  But  a  projection  of  plinths  up  to  13  centimeters  (5.12 
inches),  including  moldings,  may  be  allowed  on  such  sidewalks  even  that  do  not 
attain  a  width  of  3  meters  (9.84  feet). 

Stair  steps  may  extend  up  .to  20  centimeters  (7.87  inches)  into  the  sidewalk,  if  the 
latter  is  more  than  4  meters  (13.12  feet)  wide. 

Doors,  windows,  and  shutters  must  not  open  outward  onto  a  sidewalk.  This  holds 
good  up  to  a  height  of  3  meters  (9.84  feet). 

Balconies  and  oriel  windows  facing  on  streets  with  sidewalks  may  be  constructed 
for  the  upper  stories  only,  provided  that  the  street  is  more  than  15  meters  (49.21  feet) 
wide,  and  that  a  clear  space  of  at  least  3  meters  (9.84  feet)  in  height  is  left,  measur¬ 
ing  from  the  surface  of  the  sidewalk  to  the  underside  of  the  balcony  or  the  oriel. 

In  so  far  as  projections  on  or  above  sidewalks  are  not  absolutely  prohibited  herein, 
it  may  be  permitted,  after  due  consideration  of  all  the  circumstances,  that  balconies 
and  oriel  windows  project  not  more  than  1.30  meters  (4.27  feet),  cellar  necks  30 
centimeters  (11.81  inches)  at  most,  and  all  other  projections  not  more  than  60  centi¬ 
meters  (23.62  inches)  beyond  the  building  line. 

( b )  On  streets  where  the  building  lines  are  some  distance  back  of  the  sidewalk 
projections  may  be  constructed  exceeding  the  dimensions  laid  down  in  paragraph  a 
of  this  section,  but  not  more  than  2.50  meters  (8.20  feet),  provided  that  .the  front 
yard  is  laid  out  and  kept  as  a  garden. 

(c)  Oriel  windows  and  similar  closed  projections  must  not  occupy  a  length  greater 
than  one-third  that  of  the  building. 

All  projecting  constructions  extending  more  than  30  centimeters  (11.81  inches) 
beyond  the  building  line  must  be  kept  separated  from  neighboring  properties  by  a 
distance  equal  to  at  least  one  and  one-half  times  the  distance  of  the  projection. 

13.  Openings  in  the  front  of  buildings. — Light  openings  for  cellars  will  be  permitted 
on  such  sidewalks  as  are  over  3  meters  (9.84  feet)  wide.  These  openings  must  not 
project  more  than  30  centimeters  (11.81  inches).  They  are  to  be  provided  with  iron 
bars  placed  not  more  than  3  centimeters  (1.18  inches)  apart,  or  are  to  be  inclosed  by 
a  smooth  metallic  grating  at  least  1  meter  (3.28  feet)  high. 

Cellar  steps  must  never  project  into  the  sidewalk. 

In  buildings  not  touching  sidewalks  all  openings  must  be  equally  well  covered  or 
provided  with  bars  or  gratings. 

For  construction  of  areas,  see  section  37. 

14.  Stairways. — Any  building  in  which  the  floor  of  the  uppermost  story  is  higher 
than  2  meters  (6.56  feet)  above  the  ground  level  must  be  provided  with  at  least  one 
stairway,  which  may,  however,  be  constructed  of  wood.  Any  building  in  which 
the  floor  of  the  uppermost  story  is  higher  than  6  meters  (19.69  feet)  above  the 
ground  level  must  be  provided  with  at  least  two  stairways,  located  in  separate 
parts ;  or  it  may  be  provided  with  one  stairway  only,  if  made  fireproof.  Should  the 
uppermost  floor  be  at  a  height  of  more  than  10  meters  (32.81  feet),  then  can  a  per¬ 
mit  for  one  stairway,  even  if  fireproof,  be  granted  only  iu  exceptional  cases. 

Stairways  must  be  so  situated  that  the  greatest  distance  from  any  point  does  not 
exceed  25  meters  (82.02  feet). 

For  buildings  in  which  some  stories  are  divided  up  for  separate  lodgings  (flats) 
separate  regulations  are  given  in  section  37. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


113 


All  necessary  stairways  built  in  accordance  with  these  building  regulations  must 
be  in  direct  connection  with  the  localities  for  which  they  are  destined,  must  lead 
securely  in  a  width  of  at  least  1  meter  (3.28  feet)  through  all  the  stories,  and  must 
admit  daylight  freely  through  their  whole  extent. 

All  stairways  must  be  provided  with  protecting  railings. 

In  the  topmost  floor  a  further  fireproof  and  separate  communication  with  the  attic 
must  be  provided  from  each  necessary  stairway. 

Only  such  stairways  shall  be  considered  fireproof  of  which  the  supporting  parts, 
the  steps  and  the  risers,  are  built  either  massively  or  are  made  of  iron. 

Steps  may  be  covered  with  wood  if  they  are  massively  built  or  made  of  unper¬ 
forated  iron. 

Necessary  wooden  stairways  must  be  reeded  and  plastered  on  the  underside  or 
covered  with  some  other  equally  fireproof  material.  No  wooden  closets  will  be 
allowed  underneath  such  stairways. 

The  width  of  the  landings,  as  well  as  of  the  entries  of  stairways,  must  never  be 
less  than  the  width  in  the  clear  of  the  stairway  itself. 

15.  Light  and  elevator  shafts,  ventilation  flues. — Light  shafts  must  measure  at  least 
6  square  meters  (64.58  square  feet)  of  ground  surface,  with  the  smallest  dimension  of 
not  less  than  1.50  meters  (4.02  feet)  inclosed  to  the  roof  by  massive  walls,  and  must 
be  provided  at  the  bottom  with  some  contrivance  by  which  a  current  of  fresh  air 
may  be  obtained  from  some  adjoining  court,  etc.,  and  constantly  supplied. 

Should  the  light  shaft  be  covered  with  glass  at  its  upper  extremity,  then  must  a 
similar  contrivance  be  provided  which  will  insure  a  sufficient  change  of  air. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  make  light  shafts  of  corrugated  iron  or  some  other  incom¬ 
bustible  material,  if  they  have  to  admit  light  only  into  one  room  directly  through 
the  ceiling;  it  shall  also  be  permitted  in  such  cases  to  reduce  the  dimensions  of  the 
shafts. 

Elevator  shafts  must  be  inclosed  by  massive  walls  throughout  their  whole  extent, 
the  same  as  light  shafts,  while  all  flues  and  conduits  which  serve  for  the  purpose  of 
ventilation  only  may  be  run  between  walls  lined  with  metal  plates,  or  the  flues, 
conduits,  pipes,  etc.,  may  be  surrounded  with  some  incombustible  material. 

Openings  of  these  shafts  in  the  garret  must  be  closed  with  iron  doors. 

16.  Fireplaces. — Fireplaces  in  buildings  must  be  constructed  in  a  fireproof  manner 
in  all  their  parts. 

Ceilings  and  floorings  under  the  hearths  must  be  constructed  throughout  of  incom¬ 
bustible  materials. 

Other  fireplaces,  not  resting  on  a  thoroughly  fireproof  foundation,  must  be  sepa¬ 
rated  from  it  by  a  solid,  layer  of  cement  at  least  5  centimeters  (1.97  inches)  thick, 
above  which  must  remain  a  hollow  space  at  least  5  centimeters  (1.97  inches)  high  to 
allow  the  passage  of  air. 

Open  fireplaces  are  to  be  covered  with  fireproof  materials.  Openings  leading  into 
fireplaces  must  be  provided  with  appropriate  closing  contrivances. 

Floors  in  front  of  fireplaces  must  be  protected  in  a  fireproof  manner  to  a  distance 
of  at  least  50  centimeters  (19.69  inches)  extending  into  the  room,  and  to  a  distance  of 
at  least  30  centimeters  (11.81  inches)  to  each  side  of  the  opening. 

In  the  case  of  room-heating  contrivances  of  ordinary  dimensions,  metallic  guards 
may  be  adopted  instead  of  the  foregoing.  In  the  case  of  open  fireplaces  a  lining  all 
around  and  projecting  50  centimeters  (19.69  inches)  is  required. 

Fireplaces  made  of  stone  or  tile  must  be  separated  by  a  space  of  50  centimeters 
(19.69  inches)  from  any  woodwork  covered  by  plaster  or  cement.  In  the  case  of  iron 
fireplaces  these  distances  must  be  at  least  doubled. 

If  the  erection  of  fireplaces  of  large  dimensions  is  intended  (large  cooking  ranges, 
laundry  appliances,  etc.)  the  public  authorities  will  issue  the  necessary  regulations 
for  rendering  the  walls,  ceilings,  and  floors  fireproof. 

JEf.  Ex.  354 - 8 


114  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


17.  Smoke  flues. — The  smoke  is  to  be  conducted  through  tight  and  fireproof  flues 
within  the  respective  stories  laterally  into  the  chimney.  As  a  support  for  these  flues 
none  hut  fireproof  materials  must  he  used. 

The  smoke  flues  must  he  kept  at  a  distance  of  50  centimeters  (19.69  inches)  from  plas¬ 
tered  woodwork  and  at  a  distance  of  1  meter  (3.28  feet)  from  uncovered  woodwork. 

If  the  smoke  flues  are  covered  or  other  protecting  appliances  adopted  then  these 
distances  may  be  reduced. 

All  smoke  flues  must  be  provided  with  arrangements  permitting  the  necessary 
cleaning.' 

In  heating  stoves  in  inhabited  rooms  or  rooms  destined  for  permanent  occupation 
by  human  beings,  closing  appliances  which  may  impede  the  escape  of  the  fire  gases 
are  strictly  prohibited. 

18.  Chimneys. — Chimneys  are  to  be  constructed  throughout  in  a  fireproof  manner. 
They  must  rest  on  fireproof  foundations. 

Chimneys  must  have  an  even  rectangular  or  circular  opening,  measuring  at  least 
250  square  centimeters  (38.75  square  inches),  and  must  extend  at  least  30  centi¬ 
meters  (11.81  inches)  above  the  roof. 

Chimneys  intended  for  the  admission  of  chimney  sweeps,  etc.,  must  be  rectangular 
and  measure  from  42  to  47  centimeters  (16.53  to  18.50  inches)  in  the  flue.  Should 
larger  dimensions  he  adopted,  provision  of  climbing  irons  will  be  considered  indis¬ 
pensable. 

Any  other  than  a  vertical  direction  in  a  chimney  will  be  permitted  only  in  cases 
where  the  chimney  is  surrounded  entirely  by  massive  walls,  or  where  arches  or  iron 
bearers  of  adequate  strength  have  been  provided. 

The  sides  of  a  chimney  must  have  a  thickness  of  at  least  12  centimeters  (4.72 
inches) ;  those  bordering  on  neighboring  property  a  thickness  of  at  least  25  centi¬ 
meters  (9.84  inches). 

For  chimneys  attached  to  a  central  heating  apparatus  or  other  large  heating 
plants,  the  authorities  may  prescribe  a  greater  thickness  of  the  sides. 

In  the  case  of  contiguous  chimneys  a  separating  side  of  the  indicated  dimensions 
will  be  considered  sufficient. 

Chimneys  must  be  plastered  or  cemented  on  the  outside;  the  inside  must  be 
smoothly  pointed  in  the  joints. 

Chimneys  whose  sides  have  a  thickness  less  than  25  centimeters  (9.84  inches)  must 
be  kept  at  a  distance  of  at  least  10  centimeters  (3.94  inches)  from  timbers  and 
other  woodwork,  or  he  separated  therefrom  by  a  double  layer  of  roofing  tile. 

Chimneys  not  constructed  of  masonry  must  be  inclosed  by  masonry  walls,  when 
the  same  regulations  concerning  the  fireproof  condition  will  apply,  or  must  be  sur¬ 
rounded  to  a  thickness  of  at  least  10  centimeters  (3.94  inches)  in  a  fireproof  manner; 
in  such  cases  an  air  space  must  be  left. 

Isolated  chimneys  detached  from  buildings,  as  well  as  extension  pipes  for  length¬ 
ening  chimneys,  do  not  require  to  he  walled  in  or  covered;  this  may,  in  exceptional 
cases,  also  be  omitted  in  cases  of  fireproof  workshops  whose  ceiling  is  at  the  same 
time  the  covering  roof  of  the  building;  provided,  however,  that  complete  isolation 
from  the  woodwork  of  the  ceiling  is  obtained. 

All  chimneys  must  be  so  constructed  as  to  permit  the  passage  of  chimney  sweeps, 
etc.,  throughout  their  whole  extent,  or  must  be  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  thor¬ 
oughly  cleansed  in  all  their  parts  from  the  outside. 

Chimneys  not  admitting  of  the  passage  of  chimney  sweeps  must,  for  the  purpose 
of  cleansing,  be  provided,  in  addition  to  the  openings  on  top  and  at  the  bottom,  with 
openings  of  sufficient  size  at  all  points  where  the  direction  changes,  if  the  inclina¬ 
tion  to  a  horizontal  line  should  be  less  than  60  degrees. 

All  lateral  openings  put  in  for  the  purposes  of  admission  of  chimney  sweeps  or  for 
cleansing  must  be  provided  with  iron  sliding  traps  or  hermetically  closing  iron  doors. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS.  115 

Top  pieces  of  any  description  will  be  permitted  on  chimneys  only  in  cases  where 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  prescribed  cleaning. 

In  chimneys  of  250  square  centimeters  (38.75  square  inches)  transverse  section  in 
the  clear,  only  three  smoke  flues  pertaining  to  ordinary  room  stoves  will  be  per¬ 
mitted  to  enter.  Each  additional  smoke  flue  of  similar  description  requires  an  addi¬ 
tion  of  80  square  centimeters  (12.40  square  inches)  to  the  transverse  section  of  the 
ehimney.  If  smoke  flues  of  fireplaces  of  considerable  extent  are  intended  to  enter, 
the  authorities  will  issue  further  directions. 

Chimneys  must  be  so  located  and  so  used  that  no  danger  from  smoke,  soot,  and 
sparks  is  to  be  apprehended  for  the  buildings  and  their  surroundings. 

In  kitchens  with  confined  fires,  that  is  to  say,  where  the  cooking  is  not  done  in 
open  fireplaces,  and  where  chimneys  are  narrow,  special  pipes  allowing  the  escape 
of  steam  must  be  provided  for. 

Wall  channels  and  conduits  which  may  possibly  be  used  as  chimneys  in  the  future 
are  to  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  these  regulations,  even  if  the  introduction 
of  smoke  flues  is  not  contemplated  for  the  present. 

19.  Construction  and  material. — Buildings  must  be  constructed  in  all  their  parts  in 
a  secure  manner  and  with  suitable  materials. 

20.  Receptacles  for  offal  and  ashes. — Receptacles  for  the  temporary  stowing  away  of 
household  garbage  and  industrial  offal  must  be  made  impermeable  at  the  sides  and 
the  bottom,  and  be  tightly  and  securely  closable  at  the  top.  Receptacles  for  ashes 
must  be  made  fireproof  and  provided  with  covers. 

21.  Sewage. — Wash  and  bath  waters  and  fluid  household  slops  must  be  conducted 
through  impermeable  pipes,  gutters,  or  tubes  into  canals  or  street  gutters. 

In  the  case  of  properties,  however,  which  do  not  border  on  the  general  city  sewer¬ 
age,  household  slops  must  be  conducted  through  a  securely  grated  pipe  into  a  cess¬ 
pool  which  shall  be  impermeable  and  provided  with  a  stench  trap. 

22.  Privies. — All  excrements  are  to  be  conducted  through  pipes  into  the  public 
sewers,  or  must  be  gathered  in  movable  receptacles  so  as  to  be  hauled  away.  In 
barrel  privies  the  barrels  must  be  surrounded  by  close  walls  and  must  stand  on  a 
smooth  impermeable  floor. 

23.  Stables. — In  stables  the  floor  must  be  covered  with  an  impermeable  material. 
Sufficient  and  appropriate  receptacles  for  the  reception  of  stable  manure  must  be 
provided  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  stable.  No  stable  will  be  permitted  to  have 
any  openings  facing  a  public  street. 

24*.  Water  supply. — On  improved  pieces  of  ground  which  have  no  connection  with 
the  city  waterworks  the  establishment  of  private  water  conduits  will  be  permitted, 
or  wells  may  be  dug  which  must  supply  a  sufficient  quantity  of  drinkable  water. 

25.  Supply  and  discharge  pipes. — All  supply  and  discharge  pipes  in  and  on  buildings 
must  be  made  impermeable  and  fireproof.  Those  used  for  the  discharge  of  unclean 
materials  must  also  be  provided  with  vent  pipes  extending  above  the  roof. 

The  second  chapter  of  the  municipal  building  regulations,  embracing  sections  26 
to  36,  inclusive,  refers  solely  to  the  control  exercised  by  the  building  police  when, 
a,  new  buildings  are  to  be  erected ;  and  b  and  c,  when  alterations  or  repairs  are  to  be 
undertaken.  It  embraces  the  subject  of  the  necessary  plans,  drawings,  and  specifi¬ 
cations  which  are  to  be  submitted;  to  building  permits;  to  notice  to  be  given  of  the 
beginning  of  building  operations;  to  scaffoldings  and  inclosures  while  building 
progresses;  to  security  in  the  interior  and  for  the  vicinity  during  the  erection  of 
new  buildings ;  to  the  safety  of  existing  buildings;  to  the  removal  of  the  scaffolding; 
to  plastering  and  cementing;  to  obtaining  permits  for  outbuildings,  and  to  the  demo¬ 
lition  of  buildings. 

The  third  chapter  of  the  municipal  building  regulations  covers  speoial  regulations 
concerning  the  intended  use  of  buildings,  and  is  as  follows : 

37.  Localities  destined  for  occupancy  by  human  beings — (a)  Permanently  occupied 
rooms. — No  more  than  five  stories  will  be  permitted  iu  buildings  intended  for  per- 


116  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


manent  occupancy  by  human  beings,  and  the  flooring  of  the  top  story  must  never 
exceed  a  height  of  17.50  meters  (57.41  feet)  above  the  sidewalk. 

All  rooms  intended  for  the  purpose  mentioned  must  be  dry,  and  provided  with 
windows  of  appropriate  size  and  placed  so  as  to  admit  light  and  air  directly  from  the 
street  or  the  court. 

Rooms  whose  position  or  use  requires  that  they  be  lighted  directly  from  above  may 
be  provided  with  ceiling  lights,  if  care  is  taken  that  a  sufficient  supply  of  air  be 
obtained. 

Rooms  which  are  to  be  permanently  occupied  by  human  beings  must  have  a  height 
of  at  least  2.50  meters  (8.20  feet),  and  must  never  be  located  more  than  50  centimeters 
(19.69  inches)  below  the  surrounding  surface  of  the  ground.  This  latter  dimension 
may  be  increased  to  1  meter  (3.28  feet),  however,  if  an  area  at  least  1  meter  (3.28  feet) 
wide  is  provided,  the  bottom  of  which  is  at  least  15  centimeters  (5.91  inches)  below 
the  level  of  the  flooring,  and  if  well  drained. 

In  rooms  intended  for  permanent  occupancy  by  human  beings  and  adjoining  courts, 
floors  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground  will  not  be  permitted,  unless 
one  of  the  dimensions  of  the  court  equals  in  extent  the  length  of  the  buildings 
belonging  thereto. 

The  flooring  of  rooms  intended  for  permanent  occupancy  by  human  beings  must 
be  elevated  at  least  40  centimeters  (15.75  inches)  above  the  highest  known  level  of 
ground  water,  and  protected  against  humidity  and  vapors  emanating  from  the  soil 
by  an  impermeable  massive  groundwork. 

The  inclosing  walls  of  such  rooms  must  also  be  protected  from  rising  ground 
humidity  by  being  covered  with  some  isolating  material.  If  the  floors  of  such 
rooms  lie  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  ground  then  must  the  inclosing  walls, 
where  they  rest  directly  on  the  ground,  be  likewise  protected  against  the  penetra¬ 
tion  of  ground  humidity,  unless  there  should  be  an  area  in  front. 

Attic  rooms  can  be  permanently  occupied  by  human  beings  when  the  regulations 
laid  down  in  the  first  paragraphs  of  this  section  are  complied  with,  when  they  are 
located  directly  over  the  top  story,  and  when  they  are  separated  from  the  other 
parts  of  the  attic  by  massive  walls. 

All  buildings  or  parts  thereof  erected  for  permanent  occupancy  by  human  beings 
must  be  provided  with  a  fireproof  passage  leading  to  two  ordinary  stairways  or  to 
one  fireproof  stairway. 

All  plats  of  ground  on  which  there  are  buildings  intended  for  habitation  or  other 
permanent  occupancy  by  human  beings  must  be  adequately  supplied  with  sowers, 
privies,  discharge  pipes,  and  wells  or  waterworks  connections ;  these  must  be  easy 
of  access  to  all  parties  concerned,  and  must  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  exist¬ 
ing  regulations. 

(5)  Localities  used  temporarily . — Privies  and  bathrooms  must  be  located  so  as  to 
obtain  light  and  air  directly  from  the  street  or  from  a  court  or  from  a  light  shaft 
open  on  top  and  containing  at  least  10  square  meters  (107.64  square  feet)  ground 
surface,  with  a  minimum  dimension  of  at  least  2  meters  (6.56  feet).  Privies  will  not 
be  allowed  underneath  rooms  intended  for  permanent  occupancy  by  human  beings. 

Vestibules,  passageways,  and  halls  which  are  not  in  direct  communication  with 
the  street,  a  court,  or  a  light  shaft  of  at  least  6  square  meters  (64.58  square  feet) 
ground  surface  must  be  supplied  with  special  pipes  of  at  least  250  square  centimeters 
(38.75  square  inches)  in  transvere  section  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation. 

The  provisions  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  municipal  building  regulations  are 
purely  administrative  and  treat  of  permits  to  be  issued  in  cases  of  alterations  in 
existing  buildings,  changes  in  the  limits  of  the  property,  exceptions,  and  fines  and 
penalties. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


117 


NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Prior  to  June  1,  1892,  the  inspection  of  the  plumbing  and  drainage 
of  all  new  and  reconstructed  buildings,  and  of  the  light  and  ventila¬ 
tion  of  tenement  houses,  was  assigned  to  a  division  of  the  sanitary- 
bureau  of  the  health  department.  On  that  date  this  work  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  newly  created  department  of  buildings,  which  represents  a 
consolidation  of  these  functions  with  those  formerly  exercised  by  the 
fire  department.  Hygiene  and  security  have  thus  been  brought  under 
one  control.  Regulations  for  plumbing,  drainage,  light,  and  ventila¬ 
tion  remain,  with  but  slight  changes,  the  same  as  before.  The  laws  are 
said  to  be  well  enforced,  inspectors  often  going  to  the  very  limits  in  their 
demands.  The  superintendent  of  buildings  may  make  alterations  in 
the  regulations  in  the  same  manner  as  the  board  of  health  did  previ¬ 
ously.  No  tenement  house  can  be  erected  until  the  plans  for  light  and 
ventilation  have  been  approved,  nor  can  the  plumbing  and  drainage  of 
any  building  be  executed  until  the  plans  have  been  approved  by  the 
department.  The  specifications  for  plumbing  and  drainage  are  exceed¬ 
ingly  minute.  They  are  given  in  detail  in  the  following  form,  which 
must  be  filled  out  by  all  applicants : 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  THE  PLUMBING  AND  DRAINAGE  OF  THE 
BUILDINGS  HEREIN  DESCRIBED. 

Location - . 

Number  of  buildings - .  Description  of  buildings - . 

Dimensions  of  each  building - .  Dimensions  of  lots - . 

Owner - -.  Address - . 

Architect - .  Address - . 

Plumber - .  Address - . 

How  many  buildings  will  the  new  ones  replace  ?  -  — » 

What  kind  of  buildings  were  they?  - . 

How  many  families  did  each  of  the  old  buildings  accommodate?  - . 

Were  buildings  on  front  or  rear  of  lot?  - . 

Pursuant  to  the  requirements  of  law,  the  accompanying  plan  for  the  plumbing 
and  drainage  of  each  of  the  above-mentioned  buildings,  and  the  following  descrip¬ 
tion  thereof,  is  hereby  submitted  for  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings, 
the  undersigned  hereby  agreeing  to  cause  the  work  to  be  done  and  the  material  to 
be  furnished  in  accordance  therewith,  with  such  modifications  as  may  be  required 
by  the  superintendent  of  buildings.  No  modification  of  the  plans  or  of  the  work 
described  herein  will  be  made,  unless  the  same  is  previously  allowed  by  the  super¬ 
intendent  of  buildings,  on  the  written  application  of  owner  or  architect;  and  all 
work  pertaining  to  the  proper  plumbing  and  drainage  of  the  buildings  and  premises 
which  is  not  covered  by  the  plans,  but  is  found  necessary  during  the  progress  of  the 
work  in  order  to  carry  into  effect  the  true  intent  thereof,  will  be  executed  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  directions  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

General  Directions. 

It  is  expressly  understood  that  these  specifications  and  the  drawings  submitted 
herewith  to  the  department  of  buildings  for  approval  constitute  together,  as  approved 
by  said  superintendent  of  buildings,  the  plans  for  the  plumbing  and  drainage  of  the 


118  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


buildings  herein  described;  and  in  respect  to  all  work  not  covered  thereby  the 
plumber  is  to  be  governed  by  the  rules  and  regulations  as  to  plumbing  and  drainage 
established  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

The  plumber  will  furnish  all  materials  and  perform  all  labor  requisite  and  neces¬ 
sary  for  putting  up  and  completing  all  the  plumbing  work  in  a  good  and  thoroughly 
workmanlike  manner,  according  to  the  plans  therefor  as  approved  by  the  superin¬ 
tendent  of  buildings. 

All  materials  will  be  of  good  quality  and  free  from  defects. 

The  diameters  of  pipes  herein  specified  are  inside  diameters. 

The - will  properly  close  all  openings  in  floors  and  ceilings  about  lines  of  drain 

and  vent  pipe,  so  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of  foul  odors  from  one  floor  to  another 
along  said  lines  of  pipe. 

The  plumber  will  send  notice  to  the  superintendent  of  buildings  when  the  work 
will  begin,  and  also  at  various  times  during  the  progress  of  said  work  before  any 
part  of  it  is  permanently  covered. 

The  plumber  will  properly  protect  all  pipes  and  fixtures  as  soon  as  set,  and  close 
all  pipe  openings  so  as  to  prevent  obstruction  and  damage. 

The - will  do  all  the  excavating  and  refilling  required  for  the  proper  carrying 

out  of  these  specifications,  except  as  such  work  is  herein  otherwise  specifically  pro¬ 
vided  for. 

The  plumber  will  obtain  and  pay  for  all  necessary  permits,  and  comply  with  all 
corporation  laws  relating  to  the  subject-matter  of  these  specifications. 

After  the  completion  of  the  work  under  the  plans  and  specifications,  and  before 
tts  final  acceptance,  the  plumber  must  obtain  the  certificate  of  the  superintendent 
of  buildings  that  there  is  no  violation  of  law  on  record  against  said  work,  and  also 
a  water  permit  from  the  department  of  public  works.  He  will  then  turn  on  the  water 
and  leave  everything  in  perfect  working  order. 

I. — Materials,  etc. 

EARTHENWARE  PIPE. 

4 

All  earthenware  pipe  herein  specified  must  be  hard,  smooth,  salt  glazed,  and 
cylindrical,  and  not  less  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Each  length 
will  be  perfectly  straight  and  free  from  any  fire  cracks,  flaws,  blisters,  or  other 

defects. 

All  special  fittings  to  be  of  the  same  quality  as  the  pipe. 

CAST-IRON  PIPE. 


All  cast-iron  pipe  and  fittings  must  be  sound,  cylindrical,  and  smooth,  free  from 
cracks,  sand  holes,  and  other  defects,  of  a  uniform  thickness,  and  of  the  grade  known 
in  commerce  as  extra  heavy.  All  iron  pipe  will  be  firmly  secured  in  position  by 
proper  pipe  supports  placed  not  more  than  5  feet  apart.  No  tar-coated  pipe  will 
be  used,  but  after  the  pipes  have  been  tested  and  accepted  by  the  inspector  they 
will  be  coated  with - . 

The  following  average  weights  per  linear  foot  will  be  accepted : 

Pounds. 


2  inches . . .  54 

3  inches .  . .  94 

4  inches .  13 

5  inches .  17 

6  inches .  20 

7  inches . „ . 27 

8  inches .  334 

10  inches .  45 

12  inches.... . 64 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


119 


All  joints  in  cast-iron  pipe  will  be  made  with  picked  oakum  and  molten  lead,  and 
the  plumber  will  make  the  joints  impermeable  to  gases  by  bedding  the  lead  with 
hammer  and  calking  iron.  For  each  joint  in  cast-iron  pipe  12  ounces  of  lead  must 
be  used  to  each  inch  of  diameter  of  the  pipe  in  which  the  joint  is  made.  No  putty 
or  cement  joints  will  be  permitted.  The  lead  used  for  calking  will  be  pure,  soft  pig 
lead;  no  old  joints  or  other  defective  material  will  be  used. 

WROUGRT-IRON  PIPE. 

(If  any  wronght-iron  pipe  is  to  be  used  in  the  plumbing  and  drainage  of  the  build¬ 
ings  it  should  be  here  specified.) 

LEAD  PIPE. 

All  branch  lead  soil,  waste,  and  vent  pipes,  including  bends,  must  be  of  the  best 
quality  and  of  not  iess  than  the  following  weights  per  linear  foot: 


Diameter. 

"Weight 
per  foot. 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

3  8 

4 

6 

8 

All  connections  of  lead  with  iron  pipes  will  be  made  by  heavy  brass  ferrules  of  the 
same  size  as  the  lead  pipe,  set  in  the  hub  of  the  branch  of  the  iron  pipe  and  calked 
in  with  lead,  the  lead  pipe  to  be  attached  to  the  ferrule  by  a  proper  solder-wiped  joint 
when  practicable.  No  putty  or  cement  joints  will  be  permitted. 

All  connections  of  branch  lead  soil,  waste,  and  vent  pipes  will  be  made  by  wiped 
joints. 

All  lead  pipes  will  be  firmly  secured  in  place  with  hard-metal  tacks  and  screws, 
placed  not  more  than  3  feet  apart;  and  all  horizontal  lead  pipes  will  be  well  sup¬ 
ported  for  their  whole  length  by  shelves  or  carrying  strips,  to  be  provided  and  put 

up  by - . 

II. — Tests. 

The  plumber  will  test  all  of  the  soil,  waste,  drain,  and  vent  pipes  herein  described, 
including  branches,  in  the  presence  of  an  inspector  of  the  department  of  buildings,  and 
after  due  notice  to  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  by  a  pressure  test ;  the  pressure 
to  be  applied  as  directed  by  the  inspector,  and  after  all  openings  in  the  pipes  have 
been  securely  closed  by  the  master  plumber  or  other  person  in  charge  of  the  work. 
None  of  said  pipes  shall  be  covered  until  after  they  have  stood  the  test  to  the  satis¬ 
faction  of  the  inspector. 

III. — CE88POOL8  AND  SEWERS. 

No  cesspools  will  be  allowed  where  there  is  a  well  on  the  same  or  adjacent  prem¬ 
ises,  without  a  special  permit  from  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

The - will  construct  in - at - feet  from  the  building,  a  cesspool - by 

- and - deep,  with -  inch - walls,  and  bottom  made  absolutely  water¬ 
tight  by  means  of  - .  The  cesspool  will  be  covered  with  - and  ventilated 

by - . 

As  soon  as  it  is  possible  to  connect  above-mentioned  house  with  a  public  sewer, 
the  owner  will  have  the  cesspool  emptied,  cleaned,  disinfected,  and  filled  with  fresh 
earth,  and  have  such  connection  made  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  regulations 
of  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 


120  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


PRIVATE  SEWERS. 

0 

Where  there  is  no  public  sewer  in  the  street,  and  it  is  necessary  to  construct  a 
private  sewer  to  connect  with  a  public  sewer  in  an  adjacent  street  or  avenue,  it  must 
be  laid  outside  the  curb  under  the  roadway  of  the  street  on  which  the  houses  front, 
and  not  through  the  yards  or  under  the  houses.  Such  sewer  will  be  constructed  in 
the  following  manner: 

HOUSE  SEWERS— EXCAVATION. 

4 

The - will  make  the  necessary  excavation  for  the  house  sewer  from  the - 

wall  to  the - sewer  in - ,  making  a  smooth  bottom  for  each  pipe,  free  from  all 

projections  of  rock,  and  with  the  soil  well  rammed  to  prevent  settling  of  the  pipe. 

HOUSE  SEWER — EARTHENWARE. 

[Note. — The  laying  of  earthenware  drainpipe  for  house  sewers,  in  made  or  filled- 
in  ground,  is  prohibited  by  the  rules  established  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 
But  where  the  soil  consists  of  a  natural  bed  of  loam,  sand,  or  rock  it  is  permitted 
to  be  laid  from  outside  the  cellar,  vault,  or  area  wall  to  the  street  sewer,  if  laid 
in  strict  compliance  with  the  following  directions :] 

The - will  make  a  separate  connection  for  each  building  with  the - sewer 

by  an  earthenware  pipe - inches  in  diameter,  hard  and  salt  glazed,  and  not  less 

than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  run  at  a  uniform  grade  of  not  less  than  one- 
fourth  inch  per  foot,  extending  the  same  to  a  point  not  less  than  2  feet  outside  of 
the  outer  face  of  the  front  cellar,  vault,  or  area  wall,  as  the  case  may  be.  Every  sec¬ 
tion  will  be  bedded  iu  cement  at  the  hub.  The  ends  of  the  pipe  will  be  wetted 
before  applying  the  cement,  and  the  space  between  each  hub  and  the  small  end  of 
the  next  section  will  be  completely  and  uniformly  filled  with  the  best  quality  of 
hydraulic  cement,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  any  cement  being  forced  into  the  drain 
to  become  an  obstruction.  No  tempered-up  cement  will  be  used.  A  straight  edge 
will  be  used,  and  the  different  pipe  sections  laid  in  perfect  line  on  the  bottom  and 
sides. 

HOUSE  SEWER— OF  IRON, 

Or  the  plumber  will  make  a  separate  connection  for  each  building  with - sewer 

in - by - inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  run  at  a  uniform  grade  of  not  less 

than  one-fourth  inch  per  foot,  to  a  point  just  inside  of  the - ,  cellar,  or  vault  wall, 

as  the  case  may  be. 

The  house  sewer  in  each  case  will  he  connected  to  the  street  sewer  at  a  point  directly 
in  front  of  the  house  for  which  it  is  laid. 

Old  sewers  or  house  drains  can  be  used  for  new  buildings  only  when  found  by  an 
inspector  of  the  department  of  buildings  to  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  regulations 
governing  new  sewers  and  drains.  They  will  in  each  case  be  uncovered  for  exam¬ 
ination  by  the - . 

Notice  will  be  sent  to  the  superintendent  of  buildings  when  any  sewer  or  drain 
pipe  herein  specified  is  ready  for  inspection;  and  it  can  be  covered  only  after  it  has 
been  examined  and  pronounced  satisfactory  by  an  inspector  of  the  department  of 
buildings.  In  filling  the  trench  no  stones  will  be  placed  in  contact  with  the  pipe, 
and  the  earth  will  be  thoroughly  packed  in  without  moving  the  pipe  in  the  slightest 
degree  or  starting  any  of  the  joints. 

IV.— House  Drain. 

The  plumber  will  make  a  proper  connection  with  the  house  sewer  by  extra  heavy 

cast-iron  pipe  and  set  a - inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  running  or  half  S-traps 

just  inside  of  the  front  wall,  with  a  hand-hole  for  cleaning,  covered  with  a  screw 
cap,  properly  fitted. 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


121 


A  fresh  air  inlet  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  not  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter, 
•will  be  provided  and  properly  connected  with  the  house  drain  on  the  inlet  side  of 
the  house  trap,  and  extended  up  flush  with  the  sidewalk  near  the  street  curb,  and 
properly  covered  by  a  galvanized  iron  grating  leaded  into  the  flagstone;  or  extend¬ 
ing  to - not  less  than  15  feet  from  any  door  or  window,  and  opening  at  least  12 

inches  above  finished  grade,  with  cap,  bend,  or  grating. 

The - will  build  a - box  or  manhole  with - cover  about  the  drain  trap,  so 

as  to  make  it  readily  accessible. 

The  plumber  will  continue  the  house  drain  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe - inches 

in  diameter,  along  the  cellar  wall  or  ceiling  from  trap  to  the  point  shown  on  the  plan, 
giving  it  a  uniform  grade  to  the  trap  of  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch  per  foot.  The 
house  drain  must  not  be  laid  beneath  the  cellar  floor,  unless  the  location  of  fixtures 
in  the  cellar  or  basement,  or  the  drainage  of  yards,  cellars,  or  areas  requires  it  to  be  so 
laid.  Make  necessary  changes  in  direction  by  curved  pipes  and  all  connections  by 
Y-branch  pipes  and  one-eighth  or  one-sixteenth  bends.  From  the  points  shown 
on  the  plan,  branch  pipes  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  to  be  connected  with  the  drain¬ 
pipe  to  receive  the  soil  and  waste  pipes,  the  rain-water  leader,  and  the  connections 
from  the  area,  cellar,  and  yard  drains. 

All  of  said  branch  pipes  to  be  of  the  diameter  hereinafter  described  and  as  shown 
on  accompanying  plan  of  cellar  drainage. 

Where  hand-holes  for  cleaning  are  provided  on  the  house  drain  or  its  branches  or 
their  traps,  or  on  the  house-drain  trap,  proper  ferrules  with  screw  covers  will  be  used 
and  made  gas  tight. 

V. — Surface  Drainage,  etc. 

All  yards,  cellars,  areas,  and  light  courts  will  be  properly  graded  by  the  owner 
and  drained  as  hereinafter  specified.  The  traps  for  all  such  drains  will  he  placed 
inside  the  cellar  wall  and  made  accessible. 

Cellars  will  not  be  connected  with  the  house  drain  unless  absolutely  necessary, 
dry  cesspools  being  used  where  practicable.  If  connected  to  the  house  drain,  run¬ 
ning  traps  with  cut-off  valves  and  proper  water  supply  will  be  provided  for  each 
connection,  as  follows: 

The - will  build  in  each  yard,  cellar,  area,  and  light  court,  where  shown  on 

plans,  a  brick  cesspool  or  catch  basin, - by - ,  made  water  tight  if  sewer  con¬ 
nected,  and  the  plumber  will  set  over  each  a - strainer  and  make  connection  there¬ 

with  as  specified. 

Provide  and  set  where  shown  on  plans - inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  yard  drain, 

connecting  with  house  drain  and  trapped  by - inch  running  trap. 

Provide  and  set  where  shown  on  plans - inch  area  and  light  court  drains,  con¬ 
necting  with  the  house  drain  and  trapped  by - inch  running  trap. 

If  found  necessary  to  prevent  dampness,  the  owner  will  make  the  cellar  and 
foundation  walls  impervious  thereto  by  means  of  asphaltum  or  coal-tar  pitch  and 
cement. 

Subsoil  drains  will  be  provided  where  necessary.  Their  construction,  trapping, 
and  special  provision  for  maintaining  their  trap  seal  will  be  as  follows: 

(Here  should  follow  a  detailed  description  of  the  construction,  trapping,  etc.,  of 
subsoil  drains;  also  of  any  necessary  stable  drains.) 

VI. — Upright  Soil,  Waste,  Vent,  and  Drain  Pipes. 

SOIL  PIPES. 

For  each  water-closet  or  line  of  water-closets  and  adjacent  fixtures,  as  shown  on 

plans,  provide  and  set - inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  soil  pipe,  connecting  with  the 

house  drain  by  a  Y-hranch  and  one-eighth  or  one-sixteenth  bend  and  extending  in 
full  caliber  2  feet  or  more  above  the  highest  part  of  the  roof  or  coping.  If  near 


122  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


a  light  shaft  or  other  ventilating  opening,  extend  the  soil  pipe - feet  above  it. 

The  soil  pipe  to  have - inch - Y-branches  for  water-closets  and - Y-branches 

for  other  fixtures,  where  shown  on  plans. 

Connect  with  above-described  Y-branches - inch  iron  pipe  for  iron  water-closet 

traps,  short  lengths  of  4-inch  lead  pipe  for  earthenware  water-closet  traps,  and  short 
lengths  of - inch  lead  pipe  for  other  fixtures. 

WASTE  PIPES. 

4 

Provide  and  set,  with  proper  connections  for  each  basin,  bath,  sink,  urinal,  wash- 

tub,  or  tier  of  same,  where  shown  on  plans, - inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  waste 

pipe,  connecting  with  the  house  drain  and  terminating  above  the  roof  in  the  same 
manner  as  soil  pipe,  said  waste  pipe  to  be  not  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter  from 

below  the  roof  upward.  The  waste  pipe  to  have - inch - Y-branches  on  each 

floor;  and  each  of  the  set  fixtures,  where  shown  on  plans,  to  be  connected  therewith 
by  short  lengths  of - inch  lead  pipe. 

All  branch  soil  and  waste  pipes  must  have  fall  of  not  less  than  one-fourth  inch 
per  foot  to  the  pipes  into  which  they  discharge. 

VENT  PIPES  FOR  WATER-CLOSET  TRAPS. 

Set  for  all  water-closets  and - as  shown  on  plans, - inch  extra  heavy  cast- 

iron  vent  pipe,  connecting,  by  short  lengths  of  lead  pipe  not  less  than - inches  in 

diameter,  with  the  crown  of  each  water-closet  trap,  and - inches  in  diameter  for 

- traps.  Extend  the  main  vent  pipe  above  the  roof  in  the  same  manner  as  the 

soil  pipe  and  enlarge  it  to  4  inches  in  diameter  from  below  the  roof  upward  or  con¬ 
nect  with  the  soil  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture,  as  shown  on  approved  plans. 

Said  vent  pipe  to  have - inch - T-branches  on  each  floor. 

VENT  PIPES  FOR  OTHER  TRAPS. 

Set  for  traps  of  all  other  fixtures,  as  shown  on  plans, - inch  extra  heavy  cast- 

iron  vent  pipe,  connected  by  short  lengths  of  lead  pipe - inches  in  diameter,  with 

the  crown  of  each  trap.  Extend  the  main  vent  pipe  above  the  roof  separately,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  soil  pipes,  and  enlarged  to  4  inches  in  diameter  from  below 
the  roof  upward,  or  connect  with  the  waste  pipe  above  the  highest  fixture,  as  shown 
on  approved  plans. 

Said  vent  pipe  to  have - inch - T-branches  on  each  floor. 

There  will  be - soil, - waste,  and - vent  pipes  extended  above  the  roof 

of  each  building. 

The  arrangement  of  all  pipes  throughout  the  building  will  be  as  direct  as  pos¬ 
sible,  and  all  unnecessary  offsets  must  be  avoided. 

All  vent  pipes  will  be  graded  so  as  to  discharge  water  collected  by  condensation, 
and  connected  at  the  bottom  with  the  drain,  soil,  or  waste  pipe,  as  shown  on  plans, 
and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  obstructions  from  accumulated  rust.  The  bowing 
of  vent  pipes  must  be  avoided. 

Whenever  practicable,  all  pipes  and  traps  will  be  left  so  that  they  may  at  all 
times  be  readily  examined  and  repaired.  Where  they  are  necessarily  placed  in 
partitions  or  recesses  in  walls,  they  will  be  covered  with  face  boards  which  will  he 
fastened  with  screws,  so  as  to  be  readily  removed. 

No  caps,  cowis,  or  bends  will  be  affixed  to  the  tops  of  pipes  opening  above  the 
roof,  but  in  tenement  houses  the  opening  of  each  will  be  protected  by  a  strong  wire 
basket  securely  fastened  thereto. 

All  pipes  above  an  extension  roof  will  be  extended  above  the  roof  of  the  main 
building  when  otherwise  they  would  open  within  30  feet  of  the  windows  of  the 
main  building  or  of  an  adjoining  building. 

The  joints  between  all  pipes  and  the  roof  will  be  made  water  tight  by  heavy  sheet- 
lead  flashings  or - , 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


123 


ROOF  DRAINAGE. 


The - will  provide - leader  outside  the  house,  of  galvanized  sheet-iron, - 

inches  in  diameter ;  and  the  plumber  will  connect  same  with  the  house  drain  by  a - 

inch  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  extending  - feet  above - level  and  a - inch 

extra  heavy  cast-iron  running  trap  so  placed  beneath  the  ground  or  inside  the  cellar 
wall  as  to  prevent  freezing. 

i  The - will  provide - leader  inside  the  house,  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron, - 

inches  in  diameter,  to  be  trapped  at  the  base,  if  it  opens  near  a  ventilating  shaft  or 
window,  and  the  plumber  will  make  the  joint  between  said  leader  and  the  roof  by 
means  of  a  brass  ferrule  and  lead  or  copper  tube  properly  connected. 

When  there  is  no  sewer  connection  the - will  connect  the  leader  above  specified 

by - inch - with  the  street  gutter  or - . 

SAFES  AND  SAFE  WA8TK  PIPES. 


Underline  all - with  sheet-lead  safes,  of - pounds  per  foot,  with  edges  turned 

up  at  least - inches,  in  a  secure  manner,  to  prevent  overflow,  each  safe  to  be  prop¬ 
erly  graded  to  the  safe  waste  pipe.  Connect  all  safes  with  a - inch - pipe,  dis¬ 

charging  either  into  an  open  sink  or  upon  the  cellar  floor,  as  the  architect  may  direct. 
The  branch  pipe  from  each  safe  to  the  main  safe  waste  will  be - inch - pipe. 

Water-closets  inclosed  by  woodwork  will  be  provided  with  enameled  iron  drip 
trays. 

REFRIGERATOR  WASTE  PIPES. 


Line  the  spaces  shown  on  plans  and  as  prepared  by  carpenter  with - pound 

sheet  lead  and  connect  each  by  a - inch - branch  pipe  with  a  special  line  of 

refrigerator  waste  pipe.  Said  pipe  to  be - inch - pipe,  so  arranged  as  to  dis¬ 
charge  over  a  properly  trapped  and  Croton  supplied  sink,  in - set  not  more  than 

3  feet  above  the  floor,  and  so  placed  as  to  be  convenient  for  ordinary  use,  and  with 

the  end  of  the  pipe  covered  by - .  In  tenement  houses  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe 

will  be  extended  2  feet  above  the  roof. 

Provide  over  each  outlet  of  the  safe  waste  pipes  and  of  each  outlet  from  the  refrig¬ 
erator  waste  pipes  a  strong  metallic  strainer.  In  no  case  will  a  refrigerator  or  safe 
waste  pipe  be  connected  directly  with  the  house  drain  or  sewer,  or  with  any  pipe 
which  connects  with  the  house  drain  or  sewer. 

There  will  be - line  of  refrigerator  waste  pipe  and -  lines  of  safe  waste 

pipes  in  each  building. 


VII.— Traps. 


Trap  every  water-closet,  urinal,  sink,  basin,  bath,  and  every  washtub  or  set  of 
tubs,  and  all  other  sewer-connected  fixtures  effectively  in  the  manner  shown  on  the 
plans,  the  traps  to  be  as  near  the  fixtures  as  practicable.  The  traps  will  be  so 
arranged  that  in  no  instance  will  the  waste  from  a  fixture  pass  through  more  than 
one  trap  before  entering  the  house  drain. 

The  inside  diameters  of  traps  will  be  as  follows : 

Inches. 

For  water-closets ........................................................... 

For  urinals . . 

For  sinks  . . . . 

For  basins . 

For  baths . 

For  washtubs . 

All  traps  will  be  of  the  same  weight  and  thickness  as  their  corresponding 
branches.  They  will  be  well  supported  and  set  true  with  respect  to  their  water 
levels. 


124  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Special  precaution  must  be  taken  to  secure  perfect  joints  between  water-closet 
traps  placed  above  the  floor  aud  the  branch  soil  and  vent  pipes  for  same.  Cast-iron 
traps  must  have  lead-calked  joints. 

Proper  floor  plates  must  be  used  with  earthenware  water-closet  traps  and  the 
joints  made  permanently  secure  and  gastight  by  means  of  bolts  and  red  lead  or - . 

The  vent-pipe  connections  for  earthenware  traps  will  be  made  permanently  gas- 
tight  by - . 

VIII. — Water-closet  Cisterns, 

* 

The - will  put  up,  over  each  water-closet  a -  cistern - by - by - ; 

and  the  plumber  will  connect  the  same  with  the  supply  pipes  by - inch - lead 

pipe  and  with  closet  bowl  by - inch - lead  pipe,  arranged  for  the  proper  flush¬ 

ing  of  the  closet,  and  leave  the  whole  in  complete  working  order  with  the  necessary 
chain  and  pull  or - . 

In  no  case  will  a  water-closet  within  the  building  be  flushed  directly  from  the 
Croton  supply  pipes ;  and  the  water  from  cisterns  which  supply  water-closets  directly 
will  be  used  for  no  other  purpose.  Where  water  does  not  rise  to  water-closet  cisterns 
they  will  be  supplied  from  a  house  tank,  or  pumps  will  be  provided  to  properly  sup¬ 
ply  the  same ;  said  pumps  to  be  so  placed,  arranged,  and  connected  as  to  enable 
tenants  using  the  water-closets  to  conveniently  secure  at  all  times  a  proper  flush  for 
each  of  said  water-closets. 

Discharge  the  overflow  pipe  from  each  water-closet  cistern  into  the  bowl  of  the 
water-closet.  In  no  case  will  it  discharge  into  the  soil  or  waste  pipe  or  into  the  drain 
or  sewer. 

IX. — House-supply  Tank. 

Provide  and  set  on - a  tank  for  drinking  water,  to  hold - gallons,  lined  with 

- and  constructed  of - . 

Make  all  necessary  connections  with  supply  and  house  pipes  as  specified  under 
water  supply. 

Provide  a - inch  overflow  pipe  and  a - inch  emptying  pipe,  each  to  be  dis¬ 

charged  as  follows : 

(Here  should  follow  the  necessary  specifications.) 

Provide  a - telltale  pipe  and - . 

The  discharge  or  emptying  and  overflow  pipes  will  not  be  connected  in  any  way 
with  any  soil,  waste,  vent,  or  drain  pipe. 

PUMPS. 

If  the  pressure  of  the  Croton  be  found  to  be  insufficient  to  supply  any  fixture  or 

any  water-closet  tank,  provide  and  set  up  a - pump  to  supply  house  tank  or - 

pumps  for  each - ,  and  make  all  necessary  connections  as  specified  in  detail  under 

water  supply. 

X. — Number,  Location,  and  Description  of  Fixtures. 

Supply  and  set  up  in  complete  working  order  the  following  fixtures  of  the  pattern 
and  kind  hereinafter  described;  the  exit  pipes  to  wash  basins,  bath  tubs,  wash  tubs, 
and  sinks  to  be  provided  with  strong  metallic  strainers : 


Yard. 

Cellar. 

Base¬ 

ment. 

1st 

floor. 

2d 

floor. 

3d 

floor. 

4th 

floor. 

5th 

floor. 

6th 

floor. 

"Water-closets . 

Urinals  . 

Wash  basins . 

Bath  tuba . 

Washtubs . 

Sinks . 

Pumps . . . 

Refrigerators . . 

CHAPTER  VI. — BUILDING  REGULATIONS.  125 

(Here  should  follow  a  description  of  the  pattern  and  kind  of  water-  tlosets,  urinals, 
wash  basins,  bath  tubs,  washtubs,  sinks,  refrigerators,  etc.,  to  be  provided.) 

XI. — Water-supply  Pipes. 

The  plumber  will  grade  each  line  of  supply  pipe  so  that  it  can  be  completely 
emptied  at  its  lowest  point. 

Water  pipes  in  exposed  places  will  be  packed  by  the - with  mineral  wool,  or 

other  substance  equally  good,  to  prevent  freezing,  and  will  be  properly  boxed  and 
cased  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 

The - will  excavate  for  and  the - will  insert - inch  tap  in  street  maiD,  if 

necessary. 

The  plumber  will  connect  tap  and  house  supply  at  point  indicated  on  the  plans 
by - inch - lead  pipe,  to  weigh - per  foot,  to  be  laid - feet  below  curb  level. 

Also  place  a  stopcock  at - to  shut  off  the  water  when  necessary. 

(A  description  of  the  quality,  diameter,  and  weight  of  supply  pipes  to  fixtures 
should  here  follow.) 

XII.— Gas  Fitting. 

(Here  should  follow  a  detailed  description  of  the  gas  fittings  to  be  used  in  the 
buildings.) 

To  the  preceding  specifications  for  plumbing  and  drainage  must  be 
attached  the  signature  of  the- owner  or  architect. 

The  superintendent  of  buildings  acts  upon  the  report  and  observa¬ 
tions  of  the  inspector,  and  where  favorable  furnishes  the  necessary 
certificate.  Terra  cotta  pipes  are  not  permitted.  Whenever  iron  pipes 
are  used  galvanized  ones  are  preferred.  Tests  are  made  by  air  and 
water  pressure  over  every  inch  of  surface. 

Plans  for  light  and  ventilation  also  require  exceedingly  detailed 
specifications.  They  appear  in  the  form  of  application  for  approval  of 
plans  following  : 

APPLICATION  TO  THE  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  BUILDINGS  TO  APPROVE 

PLANS  FOR  LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION  OF  PROPOSED  TENEMENT 

HOUSE. 

Application  is  hereby  made  to  the  superintendent  of  buildings  of  the  city  of  New 
York  to  approve  the  plans  herewith  submitted  for  light  and  ventilation  of  the  tene¬ 
ment  houses  described  in  the  following  specifications,  which  are  hereby  made  a  part 
of  said  plans.  The  plans  and  specifications  are  to  be  construed  together;  but  in  case 
of  any  difference  between  them,  these  specifications,  subject  to  such  conditions  as 
may  be  imposed  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  are  to  govern: 

Location - .  Number  of  buildings - . 

Owner - .  Address - . 

Architect - .  Address - . 

Size  of  lot - .  Size  of  building - .  Number  of  floors  above  cellar - . 

Size  of  extension - .  Number  of  floors  above  cellar  — — — . 

Basement — how  to  be  occupied - . 

Basement  ceiling — height  above  sidewalk - . 

Cellar — how  to  be  occupied - . 

Cellar  floor — depth  below  sidewalk  — — . 


126  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Floors. 


Cellar. 

Base¬ 

ment. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Fourth. 

Fifth. 

Sixth. 

Seventh. 

Number  of  families  to  be 

on  each  floor . 

Height  of  ceilings . 

Inside  rooms— number  on 
each  floor  . 

Inside  rooms — how  lighted - . 

Inside  rooms — how  ventilated - . 

Halls — how  lighted  and  ventilated  - . 

Will  each  living  room  communicate  directly  with  the  external  air?  - . 

Will  each  bedroom  have  a  window  opening  directly  to  the  external  airf  - . 

Size  of  windows  opening  on  light  and  air  shafts - . 

Area  of  openings  at  top  of  each  light  and  air  shaft - . 

Height  of  louvre  sides  above  roof - . 

Size  of  fanlights  over  all  doors - . 

Skylights,  number  of - .  Size - .  Where  located - . 

Cellar — how  lighted  and  ventilated  - .  Will  cellar  ceiling  be  plastered! 

Cellar — will  it  be  made  water  tight  ?  - .  By  what  means?  - •. 

What  additional  structure,  if  any,  will  be  on  the  lot?  - . 

Distance  from  extreme  rear  of  house  to  rear  line  of  lot - . 

Distance  from  extreme  rear  of  extension  to  rear  line  of  lot  — — . 

Number  and  location  of  water-closets  - . 

Dimensions  of  shaft  for  water-closets - . 

How  arranged  at  top  to  secure  ventilation - . 

Size  of  windows  opening  on  water-closet  shaft - . 


Size. 

Area. 

1st  vent  shaft . . . 

Square  feet. 

Main  yard . 

Hear  v  ard . ..  . 

Alley . . . 

Lot . 

Remarks. 


Percentage  of  lot  covered - . 

Dated - ,  189 — . 

(Signatures  of  owner  and  applicant.) 


Notice. — Architects,  builders,  a-nd  plumbers  are  hereby  notified  that  strict  adher¬ 
ence  to  the  plans  and  specifications  on  which  this  permit  is  granted  will  be  required 
by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  unless  permission  in  writing  has  been  previously 
given  by  him  allowing  their  modification. 


Superintendent  of  Buildings. 

Permit. 

Upon  the  statements  contained  in  the  foregoing  application  and  specification,  the 
plan  for  light  and  ventilation  submitted  therewith  was  approved  by  the  superintend- 


CHAPTER  VI. - BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


12? 


ent  of  buildings  of  the  city  of  New  York,  on  the - day  of - ,  189 — ,  subject  to 

the  following  conditions  and  regulations: 

Special  Conditions. 

[Note.— These  special  conditions  take  precedence  of  all  regulation*.] 

(The  special  conditions  should  be  here  detailed.) 

Regulations. 

[Note. — These  regulations  govern  In  respect  to  particulars  not  oovered  by  the  plan  and  specifica¬ 
tions  or  special  conditions.] 

VENTILATION  OF  ROOMS. 

Every  habitable  room  must  have  at  least  one  window  opening  directly  upon  the 
street  or  yard,  or  upon  a  court  or  light  shaft. 

LIGHT  AND  AIR  SHAFTS. 

Except  as  hereinafter  otherwise  prescribed,  every  light  and  air  shaft  for  habitable 
rooms  must  be  at  least  12  square  feet  in  area  for  a  three-story  house,  16  square  feet 
in  area  for  a  four-story  house,  and  20  square  feet  in  area  for  a  five-story  house;  and 
in  every  case  not  less  than  2  feet  wide  in  the  clear.  Shafts  or  courts  between  two 
houses  and  common  to  both,  must  be  of  double  this  area,  and  not  less  than  4  feet 
wide.  But  in  houses  where  there  are  rive  interior  rooms  iu  a  line  on  a  fioor,  the  area 
of  shafts  must  be  50  per  cent  greater  than  above  prescribed ;  and  where  there  are  six 
interior  rooms  in  a  line  on  a  floor,  the  area  of  each  shaft  must  be  at  least  100  per 
cent  greater  than  the  minimum  above  prescribed. 

And  in  every  tenement  house  with  apartments  on  five  or  more  floors,  and  having 
more  than  twelve  rooms  on  a  floor,  to  bo  erected  on  an  ordinary  city  lot,  except  a 
corner  lot,  the  courts  to  light  and  ventilate  interior  rooms  must  have  an  area  of  at 
least  265  square  feet ;  and  where  there  are  twelve  rooms  on  a  floor,  the  area  of  such 
courts  must  be  not  less  than  215  square  feet. 

WINDOWS. 

The  windows  of  habitable  rooms  which  open  on  shafts  or  courts  must  be  hung 
with  weights  so  as  to  slide  vertically,  each  window  to  be  not  less  than  12  square 
feet  in  area. 

VENTILATION  OF  WATER-CLOSET  COMPARTMENTS. 

Water-closets  shall  not  he  ventilated  by  a  shaft  which  ventilates  habitable  rooms; 
and  where  they  do  not  open  otherwise  to  the  external  air,  they  must  he  ventilated 
by  means  of  a  separate  shaft,  not  less  than  3  square  feet  in  area,  to  extend  above  the 
roof,  and  arranged  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air  at  the  top  in  like  manner  as 
the  shafts  for  rooms. 

WATER-CLOSETS,  ETC. 

No  privy  vault  or  cesspool  shall  be  allowed,  if  water-closets  can  be  connected  with 
the  street  sewer.  At  least  one  water-closet  shall  be  provided  for  each  two  families. 
The  general  privy  accommodation  shall  not  be  placed  in  the  cellar. 

YARDS,  AREAS,  ETC. 

Yards,  areas,  cellars,  and  light  courts  shall  be  properly  graded  and  drained  and 
flagged  or  concreted. 

ALTERATIONS  AND  ADDITIONS. 

No  alteration  in  the  light  and  ventilation  of  the  premises  for  which  this  permit  is 
granted  shall  be  made,  except  upon  the  express  written  approval  of  the  superintend¬ 
ent  of  buildings ;  nor  shall  any  additional  structure  be  erected  upon  the  lot  except 
upon  such  approval  and  a  special  permit. 

y 

Superintendent  of  Buildings. 


128  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


TENEMENT  HOUSES. 

In  the  construction  of  tenement  houses  78  per  cent  of  the  ground 
may  be  covered.  The  great  majority  of  lots  are  built  upon  to  this 
limit.  The  estimate  of  an  inspector  places  at  20  per  cent  the  number 
of  buildings  which  cover  from  55  to  78  per  cent  of  the  space.  The 
regulations  provide  for  a  ventilating  skylight  over  the  staircases  in 
tenement  houses.  In  such  buildings  there  must  be  also  closet  accom¬ 
modation  in  the  ratio  of  one  for  every  two  families.  The  first  story 
of  tenement  houses  is  required  to  be  fireproof  and  to  have  an  iron 
stairway. 

A  series  of  prize  plans  for  tenement  and  apartment  houses  is  on  file  at 
the  office  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings.  These  are  of  various 
types,  and  have  been  made  with  reference  to  economy,  and  yet  to  afford  a 
maximum  of  convenience  and  sanitary  advantages.  The  buildings  are 
meant  to  pay  a  fair  return  to  the  owners,  and  are  not  designed  as  model 
tenements  for  purely  philanthropic  enterprises.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
construct  good  tenement  houses  on  lotshaving  25 feet  frontage  and  100 
feet  depth.  In  many  cases  it  is  considered  advantageous  to  buy  several 
lots  and  divide  them.  The  wonderful  progress  which  has  been  made 
in  tenement  house  construction  can  not  be  more  graphically  presented 
than  in  the  accompanying  sketches  (plans  Nos.  5  to  8). 

The  first  (plan  No.  5)  is  a  plan  of  tenements  as  they  existed  in  1863, 
accommodating  twelve  families  on  each  floor.  The  second  (plan  No.  6) 
is  an  outline  of  a  typical  tenement  house  prior  to  1879.  The  third 
(plan  No.  7)  represents  a  group  of  the  earliest  plans  approved  by  the 
board  of  health  under  the  building  law  of  1879.  Prior  to  this  date,  it 
should  be  remembered,  there  was  practically  no  state  or  municipal  con¬ 
trol  over  the  erection  of  buidings  in  New  York  city.  The  next  (plan 
No.  8)  is  a  first-prize  plan  in  the  tenement  house  design  competition  of 
1879.  Then  follow  four  of  the  prize  plans  now  on  file  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  buildings,  representing  the  models  upon  which  a  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  buildings  are  now  erected.  All  of  these  plans  have  been 
followed  out  time  and  again  in  existing  constructions;  they  are  not 
purely  idealistic. 

The  first  of  these  buildings  (plan  No.  9)  has  a  frontage  of  25  feet 
and  a  depth  of  89  feet  6  inches,  and  is  placed  upon  a  lot  25  feet  by 
100  feet.  All  the  tenements  are  lighted  and  ventilated  by  windows 
opening  to  the  street,  yard,  or  large  courts.  There  are  platform 
stairways,  which,  with  the  halls,  are  lighted  by  windows  opening 
to  the  courts.  Additional  light  and  ventilation  for  rooms  and  halls 
are  secured  by  transoms  over  all  the  doors.  Sinks  and  washtubs  are 
placed  in  each  suite  of  rooms,  and  one  water-closet  is  provided  for  every 
two  families.  Water-closet  apartments  are  ventilated  by  means  of  a 
special  shaft,  and  are  lighted  by  stationary  windows  abutting  on  large 
courts.  Front  and  rear  apartments  are  separated  by  sash  doors  open- 


D. — Dark. 

I _ - — Ligfit. 

H. — Hali. 


1 

#  -J 

1 

H 

A 

|]  .lllllllllllll  £ 

■  L 

'  H  J 

1  “ 

0  J 

D  I  D 


TENEMENT  HOUSE  OF  1863,  FOR  TWELVE  FAMILIES  ON  EACH  FLOOR,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Plan  No.  5. 


TENEMENT  HOUSE  PRIOR  TO  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 
Plan  No.  6. 


-68^-ft.- 


-y  u 


j* - 25  ft: - *7* 


GROUP  OF  THE  EARLIEST  TENEMENT  HOUSE  PLANS  APPROVED  BY  THE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH 

UNDER  THE  LAW  OF  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


Plan  Mo.  7 


109 


Upper  flooi. 


FIRST  PRIZE  PLAN  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  DESIGN  COMPETITION  OF  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


■ 


Plan  No.  8. 


Basement  First  floor, 


Upper  floors. 


PRIZE  PLAN  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  DESIGN  COMPETITION  OF  1379,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Plan  No.  9. 


Upper  floors. 


PRIZE  PLAN  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  DESIGN  COMPETITION  OF  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


Plan  No.  1  0. 


Basement. 


Upper  floors. 


PRIZE  PLAN  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  DESIGN  COMPETITION  OF  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


Plan  No.  1 1 


■  o  c~i 


Cellar. 


Upper  floors. 


PRIZE  PLAN  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  DESIGN  COMPETITION  OF  1879,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Plan  No.  1 2 


Jb  □  o  □  □  □ 


CHAPTER  VI. — BUILDING  REGULATIONS. 


129 


ing  to  the  public  halls.  A  dumb-waiter  exists  for  the  use  of  tenants. 
In  the  basement  ceilings  are  9  feet  4  inches  high;  on  the  first  floor 
they  are  10  feet  high;  on  the  succeeding  four  floors  they  are  9  feet  8 
inches  high. 

The  second  plan  (plan  No.  10)  represents  two  of  a  row  of  buildings 
each  27  feet  by  91  feet,  upon  lots  27  feet  by  103  feet  3  inches.  Tlie 
arrangements  in  general  are  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  plan,  but  in 
addition  the  halls  extend  to  front  rooms.  The  kitchens  are  at  the  end 
of  each  suite  of  rooms,  and  the  rooms  are  larger.  Superior  light  and 
ventilation  have  also  been  obtained,  which  is  due  to  a  row  having  been 
constructed  together  instead  of  an  individual  building.  The  ceilings 
are  of  the  same  height  as  in  the  previous  instance. 

The  third  plan  (plan  No.  11)  shows  a  house  25  feet  1  inch  by  9G  feet, 
upon  a  lot  25  feet  1  inch  by  100  feet.  The  general  disposition  of  the 
rooms  is  pretty  much  the  same  as  in  the  two  preceding  instances,  but 
they  have  superior  light  and  ventilation  on  one  side,  for  the  reason 
that  all  rooms  there  have  windows  opening  directly  to  the  streets. 
Water-closet  apartment  ventilation  is  also  better,  for  the  same  reason. 

The  fourth  plan  (plan  No.  12)  shows  a  house  30  feet  by  90  feet,  upon 
a  lot  30  feet  by  100  feet.  All  of  the  rooms  and  water-closet  apartments 
open  directly  to  the  external  air,  the  courts  running  continuously  to 
the  rear  line.  There  is  a  dumb-waiter,  and  the  rooms  have  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  superior  size,  the  lot  being  30  feet  wide. 

These  plans  represent  tenement  houses  built  for  workingmen.  They 
are  arranged  for  four  families  on  each  floor,  and  the  rents  vary  froiu  $10 
to  $20  per  suite  per  month.  Five  stories  are  devoted  to  living  apart¬ 
ments  in  tenement  houses  for  this  class  of  people. 

Tenements  renting  for  $10  to  $15  per  month  usually  have  three  rooms 
to  the  suite,  with  four  families  on  a  floor.  They  have  a  frontage  of  25 
feet  and  a  closed  court  on  each  side  of  the  stairway  midway  between 
the  front  and  rear;  two  tenements  are  in  front  and  two  back  of  the 
stairway.  A  space,  usually  10  feet  by  25  feet,  is  left  vacant  in  the  rear 
of  the  structure,  and  the  interior  court  may  not  be  less  than  2  feet  wide 
for  each  house.  A  common  hallway  on  each  floor  usually  serves  for 
two  families.  Whenever  extra  space  is  available  by  reason  of  greater 
frontage  the  interior  court  is  extended  to  the  rear  end  of  the  building. 
This  arrangement  is  preferable  because  it  affords  better  ventilation. 
An  ordinary  light  well  may  become  a  great  nuisance,  at  best  it  fur¬ 
nishes  imperfect  light  and  ventilation,  and  as  buildings  grow  older 
refuse  matter  or  filth  of  one  kind  or  another  is  very  apt  to  accumulate 
at  the  bottom,  giving  rise  to  noxious  odors. 

A  distinguishing  feature  of  some  of  the  tenement  houses  is  that  the 
kitchen  is  in  the  middle  of  the  apartment,  separating  one  bedroom  from 
the  other.  This  prevents  unnecessary  passing  from  one  bedroom  to  the 
other,  and  the  kitchen  furnishes  heat  for  both.  The  complete  separa- 
H.  Ex.  354 - 9 


130  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

tion  of  sexes,  or,  where  lodgers  are  taken,  isolation  of  members  foreign 
to  the  family,  can  be  had  in  this  disposition.  In  all  tenement  houses, 
whether  for  the  poorer  or  better  classes,  there  is  an  increasing  demand 
for  modern  improvements,  and  applicants  for  accommodation  are  begin¬ 
ning  to  consider  the  relative  merits  of  light,  ventilation,  and  other 
accommodations  before  renting.  A  wholesome  interest  in  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  a  proposed  habitation  is  increasingly  evident. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES. 


131 


CHAPTER  VII. 

INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES. 

BELGIUM. 

One  of  the  most  important,  well -conceived,  and  widely  influential 
measures  which  has  yet  been  incorporated  into  the  statutes  of  any 
enlightened  nation  is  the  Belgian  law  on  laborers’  dwellings,  which 
was  promulgated  August  9,  1889.  The  royal  commission  on  labor  of 
188G  had  disclosed  in  their  investigations  and  report  certain  facts  for 
which  remedial  effort  seemed  necessary.  Probably  the  most  practical 
outcome  of  their  labors  has  been  the  attention  which  has  since  been 
directed  to  the  question  of  the  housing  of  the  people,  and  which  culmi¬ 
nated  in  the  passage  of  the  enactment  above  referred  to.  The  measure 
received  the  cordial  sanction  of  Prime  Minister  Beernaert.  There  are 
three  distinct  parts  to  the  law :  (1)  Creation  of  committees  of  patronage; 
(2)  loaning  of  money  by  the  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Gaisse  Generale 
d JEpargne  et  de  Retraite)’,  (3)  institution  of  life  insurance  in  connection 
with  the  repayment  of  loans.  The  first  part  of  the  law  established 
in  each  local  administrative  district  ( arrondissement )  a  body  which 
may  perhaps  be  called  a  semiofficial  committee  on  good  works.  It 
is  composed  of  not  less  than  five  and  not  more  than  eighteen  mem¬ 
bers,  appointed  for  a  term  of  three  years.  From  three  to  ten  are  named 
by  the  permanent  delegation  (local  representatives)  in  the  provincial 
council  and  from  two  to  eight  by  royal  decree.  The  duties  of  this  body, 
as  defined  by  administrative  act  July  7,  1891,  are  as  follows: 

Article  15. — A.  To  encourage  the  construction  and  letting  of  salu¬ 
brious  dwellings  lor  working  people,  and  their  sale,  either  for  cash  or 
for  annual  payments.  With  this  end  in  view  they  shall  study  and 
make  an  effort  to  bring  about  appropriate  combinations  for  this  purpose. 
They  shall  aid  in  the  formation  of  joint  stock  and  cooperative  companies 
for  the  construction  of  workingmen’s  dwellings.  They  shall  facilitate 
the  work  of  any  public  administration,  of  companies,  and  of  individuals 
by  the  examination  of  proposed  plans,  and  by  offering  for  examination 
typical  plans  of  houses  prepared  in  conformity  with  the  programme  of 
the  superior  council  of  hygiene. 

B.  To  study  all  that  concerns  the  salubrity  of  houses  inhabited  by 
workingmen  and  the  hygiene  of  the  locality  where  they  are  established 
in  large  numbers.  For  this  purpose  they  shall  exercise  a  permanent 
and  general  supervision  over  workingmen’s  dwellings  and  populous 
quarters  and  occupy  themselves  with  gleaning  statistical  information 
upon  the  condition  of  workingmen’s  homes.  They  shall  devise  proper 
means  to  facilitate  the  sanitation  of  these  quarters;  they  shall  inspect 

133 


134  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


dwellings,  with  the  consent  of  their  occupants,  and  make  a  note  of  the 
prevailing  conditions ;  they  shall  in  particular  notice  it  they  are  suffi¬ 
ciently  large  and  properly  ventilated,  and  if  they  are  provided  with 
the  necessary  supply  of  water;  they  shall  also  assure  themselves  of 
the  proper  condition  of  the  sewers  and  the  regular  removal  of  refuse. 
After  investigating  the  causes  of  insalubrity  they  shall  indicate  the 
proper  ameliorations  to  the  occupant,  to  the  principal  lessee,  and  to  the 
proprietor,  and  whenever  it  is  a  question  of  lodgings  which  are  not 
susceptible  of  being  thus  ameliorated,  they  shall  call  the  attention  of 
the  local  authority,  or  in  case  of  need  the  attention  of  the  provincial 
medical  commission  to  the  facts. 

0.  To  encourage  the  development  of  thrift  and  of  life  insurance,  as 
well  as  loan  companies  and  mutual  relief  and  pension  funds.  For  this 
purpose  the  committees  may  put  themselves  in  relation  with  heads  of 
industries  and  with  workingmen.  They  shall  give  their  advice,  when¬ 
ever  necessary,  to  the  governing  commission  of  societies  of  mutual 
relief  relative  to  requests  for  legal  recognition  presented  by  newly 
organized  local  agencies. 

Art.  16.  The  committees  shall  correspond  directly  with  the  govern¬ 
ment,  with  the  provincial  authority,  with  the  communal  administrations 
of  their  jurisdiction,  as  well  as  with  the  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Caisse 
Generale  dlEpargne  et  de  Retraite ),  with  the  governing  commission  of 
societies  of  mutual  relief,  and  with  the  provincial  medical  commission. 
**#*### 

They  shall  give  their  advice  upon  all  questions  which  are  submitted 
to  them  by  the  government,  by  the  provincial  authority,  by  the  gov¬ 
erning  commission  of  societies  of  mutual  relief  and  by  the  provincial 
medical  commission. 

*##*### 

Art.  17.  The  committees  of  patronage  may  establish  and  distribute 
prizes  for  order  and  neatness  in  the  care  of  dwellings  and  for  thrift. 

In  order  to  carryout  this  purpose  they  may  receive  personal  gifts  and 
legacies  and  subsidies  from  public  bodies. 

Art.  18.  In  cases  of  expropriation  of  areas  in  quarters  specially 
inhabited  by  the  working  classes  the  governor  shall  communicate  the 
project  to  the  committee  of  patronage  interested. 

The  committee  shall  give  its  advice  concerning  the  conditions  which 
it  thinks  should  be  imposed  in  regard  to  the  resale  of  the  ground 
included  in  the  expropriation. 

fhe  papers  in  the  case  shall  then  be  submitted  to  the  permanent 
delegation  and  transmitted  to  the  government. 

The  committees  are  also  required  to  make  an  annual  report  of  their 
operations  to  the  minister  of  agriculture,  industry,  and  public  works. 
A  copy  is  communicated  to  the  superior  council  of  hygiene,  and  each 
commune  is  entitled  to  receive  official  communication  of  the  particular 
part  of  the  report  which  concerns  it. 

The  establishment  of  local  committees  of  patronage  of  this  sort  has 
been  a  happy  innovation.  Much  profit  has  resulted  to  the  working 
people  and  to  the  community  as  a  whole  by  the  close  inspection  and 
careful  study  of  hygiene  which  they  have  given.  The  reports  of  the 
Brussels  committee,  made  by  Messrs.  Charles  Lagasse  and  Charles  de 
Quekei ,  and  of  Colonel  van  den  Bogaert,  of  the  Antwerp  committee, 
show  with  what  care,  precision,  and  scientific  exactitude  the  work  has 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  135 


been  done.  Ex-Premier  Beernaert  offers  bis  official  testimony  to  the  suc¬ 
cessful  working  of  this  scheme.  He  publicly  asserted  that  committees 
had  been  established  throughout  the  whole  kingdom,  and  that  devoted 
men  had  been  found  to  give  their  attention  to  the  duties  involved. 
Almost  everywhere  they  have  made  thorough  house-to-house  investi¬ 
gations  of  the  habitations  of  the  poor.  They  have  also  prepared  and 
distributed  in  great  numbers  plans  and  estimates  for  houses,  and  have 
been  useful  in  establishing  companies  for  the  construction  and  sale  of 
workingmen’s  dwellings. 

The  second  distinct  feature  of  the  Belgian  law  is  the  authorization 
to  the  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Caisse  Generate  (VEpargne  et  de 
Eetraite),  a  semiofficial  institution,  whose  deposits  the  government 
guarantees,  to  loan  a  part  of  its  reserve  at  reduced  rates,  in  order  to 
encourage  proprietorship  of  homes  among  working  people.  The  gen¬ 
eral  principle  is  laid  down  of  lending  only  through  an  intermediary; 
consequently  four  different  kinds  of  associations  are  contemplated  by 
the  law,  namely,  joint  stock  and  cooperative  loan  companies  and  joint 
stock  and  cooperative  building  companies.  To  the  loan  companies  the 
rate  of  interest  on  advances  made  by  the  General  Savings  Bank,  in 
pursuance  of  their  object,  is  fixed  at  per  cent,  and  to  the  building 
companies  at  3  per  cent  per  annum.  Not  only  is  there  a  discrimination 
as  to  the  rate  of  interest  charged  for  these  advances,  but  the  amounts 
of  the  advances  made  to  loan  companies  and  to  building  companies 
vary.  To  the  former,  if  a  joint  stock  company,  an  advance  may  be  made, 
in  the  first  instance,  equal  to  one-half  of  the  capital  stock  subscribed 
and  not  paid  in,  and,  again,  equal  to  three-fifths  of  the  value  of  the  real 
estate  security  furnished.  Advances  to  building  companies  can  only 
be  made  of  an  amount  equal  to  one-half  of  the  value  of  the  real  estate 
belonging  to  the  company  in  each  instance. 

The  loan  company  is  formed  exclusively  for  the  purpose  of  making 
loans  to  working  people  for  the  construction  or  purchase  of  houses  for 
their  own  habitation.  Future  inhabitants  may,  subject  to  approval, 
choose  their  own  ground,  and  borrow  money  from  the  company  to  con¬ 
struct  houses  according  to  their  tastes,  the  company  acting  as  guide 
and  adviser.  Building  companies  construct,  purchase,  sell,  or  rent, 
but  ownership  is  vested  in  the  society.  There  is  less  security  to  the 
loaner,  and  smaller  latitude,  as  a  general  thing,  for  exercise  of  the 
laborer’s  choice. 

The  loan  companies,  in  order  to  receive  advances,  must  give  bonds,  so 
to  speak,  of  their  philanthropic  intentions  by  limiting  their  dividends 
to  3  per  cent  per  annum.  The  object  of  this  prescription  is  to  prevent 
borrowing  for  speculation.  The  reduced  rate  of  interest  to  the  loan 
companies  is  created  in  view  of  the  greater  security  furnished.  The 
advice  of  the  local  committee  of  patronage  is  always  sought  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  character  of  these  companies.  Knowledge  of  their  inten¬ 
tions  and  of  their  financial  standing  and  ultimate  aims  comes  to  the 
governing  powers  of  the  bank  in  this  way. 


136  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  committees  of  patronage  are  exceedingly  useful  in  assisting  the 
General  Savings  Bank  in  its  loaning  operations.  After  a  company  is 
formed,  and  before  any  money  whatever  is  advanced  to  it,  the  local 
committee  of  patronage  is  called  upon  to  give  information  to  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  General  Savings  Bank  concerning  the  status  of  the 
company,  what  it  is  doing,  and  what  service  it  is  likely  to  render.  Being 
a  local  organization,  the  committee  of  patronage  is  cognizant  of  the 
facts,  and  its  report  guarantees  financial  stability  and  forestalls  specu¬ 
lative  possibilities.  The  first  step  which  a  workingman  takes  when  he 
starts  to  acquire  a  house  is  to  address  himself  to  the  local  committee  of 
patronage.  He  secures  from  it  a  certificate  establishing  the  fact  that 
lie  is  a  bona  fide  workingman.  This  certificate  is  attached  to  the  act 
of  sale  or  to  the  mortgage  passed  between  himself  and  the  company.  It 
is  this  certificate  which  gives  him  the  benefit  of  a  reduction  of  charges 
for  registration  fees,  etc.,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  text  of  the  law. 

The  by-laws  of  joint  stock  companies,  either  loan  or  building,  for 
favoring  the  construction  of  workingmen’s  dwellings,  in  order  that  the 
companies  may  obtain  advances  from  the  General  Savings  Bank,  must 
contain  the  following  clauses:  (1)  An  agreement  to  accept  the  surveil¬ 
lance  of  the  General  Savings  Bank.  (2)  An  agreement  to  submit  to  the 
ratification  of  the  General  Savings  Bank’s  board  of  directors  all  trans¬ 
fers  of  shares  not  fully  paid  up.  The  reason  for  this  prescription  is 
apparent  when  it  is  considered  that  the  General  Savings  Bank,  in  mak¬ 
ing  an  advance  equal  to  one-half  of  the  capital  stock  subscribed  and  not 
paid  in,  relies  to  a  certain  extent  for  its  security  upon  the  solvency  of  the 
individual  owners  of  shares.  (3)  To  give  to  the  board  of  management  of 
the  savings  bank  immediate  notice  of  every  sum  called  in,  either  in  par¬ 
tial  or  entire  payment  of  shares.  (4)  To  transmit  to  the  said  board 
every  year  a  certified  statement  of  its  affairs. 

As  regards  the  surveillance,  the  only  stipulation  of  any  importance 
is  that  no  engagement  may  be  entered  into  by  the  company  with  a  third 
party  which  is  not  sanctioned  by  its  board  of  directors  or  by  a  general 
meeting  and  duly  spread  upon  the  minutes.  Companies  must  also 
engage  to  pay  in  upon  account  with  the  General  Savings  Bank  all 
moneys  beyond  a  small  sum;  and,  furthermore,  their  employees  who 
handle  money  must  be  bonded. 

The  reason  for  the  requirement  to  pay  over  everything  except  a  small 
sum,  usually  not  more  than  1,000  francs  ($193),  into  an  open  account 
with  the  bank  is  that  all  breaches  of  trust  or  misuse  of  funds  may  be 
avoided.  The  same  motive  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  requirement 
that  employees  handling  money  shall  be  bonded. 

The  General  Savings  Bank  allows  interest  on  deposits  equal  to  what 
it  charges  upon  advances,  that  is,  2£  and  3  per  cent,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  form  of  by-laws  required  by  law  of  a  joint  stock  loan  company  is 
as  follows: 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  137 


BY-LAWS  OF  A  JOINT  STOCK  LOAN  COMPANY  FORMED  UNDER  THE 

BELGIAN  LAW  OF  1889. 

Chapter  I. 

Article  1.  There  is  hereby  formed  between  the  undersigned  and 
all  those  who  shall  become  shareholders  a  joint  stock  company  under 
the  name  and  title  of - . 

Art.  2.  The  company  has  its  chief  office  at - . 

Art.  3.  The  duration  of  its  existence  is  tixed  at - years,  dating 

from  this  day. 

The  first  fiscal  year  shall  end  with  December  31,  1S9-. 

Art.  4.  The  company  has  for  its  exclusive  object  the  making  of  loans 
with  the  view  of  constructing,  or  the  purchasing  of  real  estate  destined 
for,  workingmen’s  dwellings.  Consecpiently  it  is  empowered  to  do  all 
acts  and  transact,  generally,  whatever  shall  be  necessary  for  these 
operations,  and  especially : 

To  grant  loans  secured  by  mortgage  and  repayable  in  fixed  install¬ 
ments,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  workingmen  to  purchase  real  estate 
from  third  parties; 

To  borrow,  with  or  without  security; 

To  receive  savings  or  other  deposits  to  an  amount  which  shall  keep 
the  liabilities  of  the  company  to  its  creditors  below  one  and  one-half 
times  the  liabilities  of  the  company  to  itself  (capital  subscribed  and 
reserves) ; 

To  guarantee  the  obligations  of  third  parties;  to  pay  in  their  place 
and  stead  with  subrogation  upon  mortgage; 

To  conclude  with  the  General  Savings  Bank  {la  Caisse  Generale 
d’Rpargne  et  de  Retraite)  under  the  guarantee  of  the  state  mixed  insur¬ 
ance  upon  the  lives  of  their  borrowers  by  paying  for  them  the  neces¬ 
sary  premiums  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the  reimbursement  of  loans 
made  for  the  construction  or  purchase  of  dwellings. 

The  company  is  prohibited  from  acquiring  real  estate  other  than  that 
which  may  be  offered  for  sale  in  consequence  of  a  writ  of  execution 
issued  against  one  of  its  debtors,  or  in  consequence  of  overbidding  in 
cases  of  voluntary  alienation,  or  when  offered  for  sale  at  auction.  In 
none  of  these  cases  shall  the  purchase  price  exceed  the  balance  due  from 
the  debtor-proprietor. 

Chapter  II. 

Art.  5.  The  capital  of  the  company  is  fixed  at - francs  and  divided 

into - shares,  each  of  the  value  of - francs. 

Art.  6.  These - shares  are  subscribed  for  as  follows: 

Shares. 

1.  By  Mr.  X . 

2.  By  Mr.  Y . 

3.  By  Mr.  Z,  etc . „ . 

Total,  equal  to  the  shares  issued. . 

Art.  7.  On  the  total  of  the  shares  subscribed  by  each  shareholder 
an  immediate  payment  must  be  made  in  gold  or  silver  coin  of  legal  value, 
in  the  presence  of  the  undersigned  notary  and  witnesses,  into  the  hands 

of  the  hereinafter  named  directors,  amounting  to - per  cent  of  the 

value  of  each  share,  that  is,  a  total  sum  of - francs.  The  balance 

shall  be  paid  into  the  hands  of  the  directors  upon  the  decision  of  the 


138  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

board  of  directors  upon  one  month’s  notice,  to  be  given  by  simple 
letter.  No  call  for  funds  shall  exceed - per  cent  (a). 

Art.  8.  Shares  are  transferable.  They  are  numbered  in  regular  order 
and  a  register  of  them  is  kept  at  the  chief  oflice. 

Shares  fully  paid  up  may  be  converted  into  shares  payable  to  bearer; 
the  shares  payable  to  bearer  are  signed  by  two  directors. 

The  possession  of  a  share  carries  with  it  the  legal  obligation  to  submit 
to  the  by-laws  of  the  company  and  to  the  decisions  of  the  general 
meeting. 

,  Art.  9.  Shares  are  indivisible.  If  there  are  several  owners  for  the 
same  share,  the  company  has  the  right  to  suspend  the  exercise  of  rights 
belonging  thereto  until  one  person  only  shall  be  designated  as  being 
owner  of  the  share. 

Art.  10.  Neither  the  death  nor  the  interdiction,  nor  the  bankruptcy, 
nor  the  insolvency  of  one  or  more  shareholders  shall  cause  the  disso¬ 
lution  of  the  company. 

The  heirs  or  assigns  of  a  shareholder  can  not  require  either  the  placing 
of  seals  or  an  inventory  of  the  property  of  the  company.  They  must, 
in  the  exercise  of  their  rights,  rely  upon  the  authorized  inventories  or 
balance  sheets  of  the  company. 

Any  action  for  the  purpose  of  nullifying  the  indivisibility  of  shares 
is  strictly  prohibited  to  shareholders  as  well  as  to  their  assignees. 

Art.  11.  Shareholders  are  liable  for  the  total  amounts  of  their  sub¬ 
scriptions  only. 

Chapter  III. 


Art.  12.  The  company  is  managed  by  a  board  composed  of - 

members. 

The  duration  of  their  term  of  office  is  fixed  at - years.  The  board 

chooses  from  its  members  a  president;  it  elects,  also,  either  from  its 
own  members  or  from  outside  of  the  board,  a  secretary  and  a  treasurer 
or  a  secretary-treasurer.  Directors  elected  to  these  positions  can  hold 
office  only  during  the  period  of  time  for  which  they  were  appointed 
directors. 

Art.  13.  The  board  of  directors  shall  have  power,  within  the  limits 
imposed  by  the  by-laws,  to  deliberate,  transact,  compromise,  and  decide 
any  matter  which  has  reference  to  the  interests  of  the  company,  and 
especially  it  shall  have  power  to — 

(a)  Regulate  the  general  or  specific  conditions  of  every  contract  of 
sale,  exchange,  purchase,  loan,  and  all  other  contracts  relating  to  these 
operations;  acquire  all  real  estate  in  the  cases  mentioned  in  the  last 
paragraph  ot  article  4;  resell  it  either  at  public  or  private  sale; 

ft)  Receive  all  moneys,  effectuate  the  withdrawal  of  deposits  made  at 
the  General  Savings  Bank  ( la  Caisse  Generale  (VEpargne  et  de  Retraite), 
at  the  Bank  of  Deposits  and  Consignments  (la  Caisse  des  Depots  et  Con¬ 
signations)  ,  or  elsewhere,  and  determine  the  use  of  disposable  funds;  give 
gemnal  power  to  two  directors  to  jointly  sign  all  checks  and  receipts; 

(c)  Make  use  ot  all  the  forms  of  credit;  loan  upon  mortgage;  borrow 
with  or  without  security  ;  accept  savings  or  other  deposits  within  the 
unit  indicated  in  the  third  paragraph  of  article  4;  negotiate  life  insur¬ 
ance,  even  on  third  parties;  repurchase  policies; 


th?  BelSianJa^  the  to  be  Paid  in  can  not  be  less  than  10  per  cent 
capRaUtock.116  °f  6aCh  8har6’  That  U8ually  reP™8ents  the  only  call  made  upon  the 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  139 


( d )  Consent  to  a  stay  of  proceedings  affecting  mortgages,  either 
recorded  or  demanded,  executions,  writs  of  injunction,  and  garnish¬ 
ments,  decline  the  use  of  the  privilege  of  and  the  action  for  cancella¬ 
tion,  excuse  the  keeper  of  mortgage  records  from  making  official  entries ; 
agree  to  all  subrogations,  priorities,  and  transfers  of  rank  of  mortgages; 
decide  all  questions  of  priority — all  this  before  as  well  as  after  payment; 

( e )  Represent  the  company,  either  as  plaintiff  or  defendant,  in  all  legal 
proceedings,  take  appeal,  prosecute  all  executions  against  personal  and 
real  property  until  full  satisfaction ; 

(/)  Accept  the  supervision  of  the  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Caisse 
Generate  (Vfipargne  et  de  Iietraite)  under  the  guarantee  of  the  state; 
in  this  case  the  board  must  agree:  (1)  To  submit,  lirst  for  approval,  to 
the  bank’s  board  of  directors  every  transfer  of  shares  not  paid  up; 
(2)  to  give  immediate  notice  of  every  payment  which  may  be  called  in 
partial  or  complete  liberation  of  shares  of  this  kind;  (3)  to  transmit  to 
the  directors  of  the  said  savings  bank,  also,  a  detailed  and  certified 
copy  of  papers  mentioned  in  articles  62  and  G3  of  the  law  of  May  18, 
1873,  concerning  companies;  and  (4)  to  realize,  within  a  period  fixed 
by  the  board  of  directors  of  the  bank,  on  all  real  estate  which  shall  bo 
forfeited  to  the  company. 

Art.  14.  There  can  be  no  engagement  entered  into  by  the  company 
with  third  parties  which  is  not  sanctioned  by  its  board  of  directors  or 
by  the  general  meeting  and  not  entered  on  the  minutes  in  a  special 
record  book. 

Art.  15.  With  the  exceptions  provided  for  in  article  14,  the  board  of 
directors  may  delegate  to  one  of  its  members  or  to  one  of  the  superin¬ 
tendents  or  managers  the  daily  conduct  of  the  company’s  business.  It 
appoints  and  dismisses  its  superintendents,  managers,  or  other  agents, 
determines  their  powers,  and  fixes  their  compensation  and  salaries. 

The  president  of  the  board  and  the  secretary,  secretary-treasurer, 
and  general  manager  are  charged  with  the  execution  of  all  the  resolu¬ 
tions  of  the  board  of  directors. 

Art.  16.  The  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  a  month.  Resolutions 
shall  be  passed  by  a  majority  vote;  in  case  of  a  tie  the  president  shall 
have  the  deciding  vote.  In  exceptional  cases,  two  directors  may,  on 
their  own  personal  responsibility,  make  a  decision  to  be  submitted  for 
ratification  to  the  board  of  directors  within  eight  days  and  to  be  spread 
upon  the  minutes  as  provided  by  article  14. 

Except  in  cases  of  urgency  declared  and  stated  in  the  letter  of  con¬ 
vocation  sent  to  all  the  directors  by  registered  mail,  the  board  can 
legally  transact  business  only  when  at  least  one-lialf  of  its  members  are 
present. 

Art.  17.  The  supervision  of  the  company  is  confided  to - commis¬ 

sioners. 

Their  term  of  office  is  fixed  at - years. 

Art.  18.  The  directors  and  commissioners  are  appointed  and  dis¬ 
missed  by  the  general  meeting  of  the  shareholders. 

Art.  19.  [Refers  to  temporary  designation  of  directors  and  commis¬ 
sioners  until  the  general  meeting  shall  regularly  elect,  etc.] 

Art.  20.  [Refers  to  the  general  duties  of  directors  and  commission¬ 
ers,  and  the  security  which  they  must  furnish  as  a  bond  for  faithful 
performance  of  duties.] 

Art.  21.  [Refers  to  the  bonding  of  employees  handling  funds.] 

Art.  22.  The  company  is  forbidden  to  keep  more  than - francs  in 

its  treasury;  all  of  the  surplus  shall  be  deposited  to  its  current  account 
in  the  savings  bank  created  under  the  guarantee  of  the  state. 


140  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Chapter  IY. 


Art.  23.  [Designates  the  place  and  date  of  the  general  meeting.] 

Art.  24.  The  convocation  and  deliberation  of  the  general  meeting 
shall  take  place  in  accordance  with  the  prescriptions  of  articles  59,  60, 
and  61  of  the  law  of  May  18,  1873,  concerning  companies. 

In  order  to  take  part  in  general  meetings  the  holders  of  shares  made 
out  to  bearer  should  make  known  ten  days  before  the  meeting  the 
number  and  designation  of  their  shares.  They  will  be  admitted  on 
producing  the  original  share  or  a  certificate  showing  that  the  share 
has  been  deposited  at  the  chief  office  of  the  company.  Shares  issued 
in  the  name  of  the  holder  entitle  him  to  participate  in  the  general 
meetings  without  further  formalities.  Each  share  gives  the  right  to 
one  vote;  no  person,  however,  can  vote  upon  a  number  of  shares 
exceeding  the  fifth  part  of  the  total  number  issued  or  exceeding  two- 
fifths  of  the  shares  represented  in  the  vote. 

The  right  to  jiarticipate  jn  the  meetings  may  be  delegated,  but  only 
to  a  shareholder  who  himself  has  a  right  to  be  present. 

A  proxy  may  represent  only  one  shareholder. 

Art.  25.  All  decisions  relative  to  the  acceptance  of  savings  or  other 
deposits  beyond  the  limits  fixed  in  the  third  paragraph  of  article  13  are 
exclusively  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  meeting. 

Chapter  V. 

Art.  26.  On  the  31st  of  December  of  each  year  the  books  shall  be 
closed.  The  board  shall  take  an  inventory  and  make  a  balance  sheet 
with  an  account  of  profit  and  loss. 

The  net  profit,  after  deducting  all  general  expenses,  losses,  interest, 
and  depreciation  shall  be  divided  as  follows:  (1)  5  per  cent  to  the 
reserve  fund,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  law;  (2)  a  dividend  to 
shareholders,  which  shall  not  exceed  3  per  cent  of  the  paid-in  capital: 
(3)  the  balance  to  the  reserve  fund. 

Art.  27.  The  reserve  fund  shall  be  employed  entirely  in  conformity 
with  the  exclusive  object  of  the  company. 


Chapter  VI. 

Art.  28.  The  dissolution  of  the  company  before  the  expiration  of  its 
legal  term  can  be  decided  upon  by  an  extraordinary  general  meeting, 
lepiesenting  at  least  one  half  of  the  capital  stock,  and  a  majority  of 
tliree-tourths  of  the  votes  present  or  represented. 

Ar  i  29.  The  same  meeting  shall  fix  the  method  of  liquidation,  and 
shall  choose  by  simple  majority  vote  one  or  three  liquidators. 

x  Ri.  30.  In  case  of  dissolution  of  the  company,  for  whatever  cause, 
there  shall  be  deducted  from  the  reserve  fund,  after  repayment  of  the 
capital  paid  in  by  the  shareholders,  a  sum  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the 
interest  paid  or  payable  upon  all  advances  made  to  the  company  during 
1  ^  ^enera^  Savings  Bank  (la  Gaisse  Generate  d’Epargne 

f  e  ‘  ^phe  Rum  so  deducted  shall  be  paid  by  the  liquidators 

vpr  ia,0mi)+an^.t-)  ®aid  bank  as  an  indemnity,  on  account  of  the 
I  "  mter:f  ,°f  VV0  a?d  011  e  half  per  cent  which  shall  be 

ISBSZ.  the  company  in  the  contracts  show 

[Signatures  and  attestations  follow.] 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  141 


The  companies  which  are  constituted  with  the  view  of  obtaining  ad¬ 
vances  at  per  cent,  viz,  the  loan  companies,  both  joint  stock  and 
cooperative,  are  commercial  companies;  those  which  are  constituted 
with  the  view  of  obtaining  advances  at  3  per  cent,  viz,  building  com¬ 
panies,  both  joint  stock  and  cooperative,  retain  their  civil  character. 
The  first  category  are  properly  called  loan  companies,  having  for  their 
exclusive  object  the  making  of  loans  in  order  to  favor  the  construction 
of,  or  purchase  of  real  estate  destined  for,  workingmen’s  dwellings; 
the  second  are  companies  having  as  their  exclusive  aim  the  construction, 
purchase,  sale,  and  rental  of  dwellings  for  the  working  classes.  The 
first  class  can  not  acquire  real  estate,  must  limit  dividends  to  be  dis¬ 
tributed  upon  the  capital  paid  in  by  the  shareholders  to  3  per  cent,  put 
aside  as  reserve  all  surplus,  and  finally  bind  itself  in  case  of  liquida¬ 
tion  to  hand  over  to  the  General  Savings  Bank  such  a  part  of  this 
reserve  as  will  make  up  the  interest  on  advances  made  to  3  per  cent. 
The  second  class  may  construct,  purchase,  sell,  or  rent;  may  distribute 
to  shareholders  a  dividend  beyond  3  per  cent,  and  need  only  put  aside 
as  reserve  the  sum  required  by  the  law  of  1873  in  relation  to  these 
institutions.  By-laws  of  all  companies  of  either  class  must  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  General  Savings  Bank.  It 
is  recommended  also  that  the  names  of  shareholders  be  sent  with  copies 
of  the  by-laws. 

Before  a  company  can  commence  operations  subscribers  must  have 
paid  in  10  per  cent  of  their  capital  stock.  An  advance  may  then  be 
obtained  from  the  General  Savings  Bank  equal  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
capital  subscribed  but  not  paid  in  by  the  shareholders.  A  sum  equal 
to  55  per  cent  of  the  capital  subscribed  is  thus  immediately  available 
for  loaning  purposes.  This  will  be  constantly  increased  as  loans  are 
made,  by  the  first  payments  of  borrowers.  Further  advances,  amount¬ 
ing  to  three-fifths  of  the  value  of  the  property  when  completed,  which 
shall  exceed  by  at  least  a  ninth  the  sum  of  the  corresponding  loans,  are 
then  made.  The  supervision  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  General 
Savings  Bank  must  be  accepted  and  the  value  of  the  property  settled 
by  an  expert  chosen  by  the  board  and  paid  by  the  company.  The  first 
advance  made  by  the  General  Savings  Bank  to  the  loan  company  is  on 
the  faith  of  the  solvency  of  the  original  subscribers.  Upon  the  value 
of  the  property  itself  the  subsequent  advance  of  three-fifths  is  made. 

It  is  stipulated  that  the  workingman  shall  be  required  to  pay  in  first 
one-tenth  of  the  value  of  his  property.  This  proves  to  the  company 
that  he  has  a  little  something  laid  by  and  that  he  knows  how  to  econo¬ 
mize. 

The  loan  company  may  be  said  to  hold  the  first  claim  upon  the  acquir¬ 
ing  purchaser.  The  value  of  the  property  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  nine- 
tenths  unpaid,  and  even  if  the  workingman  should  fail  to  discharge 
his  obligations  at  the  outset,  neither  the  loan  company  nor  the  General 
Savings  Bank  would  lose  anything  by  the  operation. 


142  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

It  is  much  easier  to  understand  the  operation  of  this  law  by  a  con¬ 
crete  example  than  by  an  abstract  statement.  Let  us  suppose  that  a 
joint  stock  loan  company  is  formed  with  a  capital  of  $100,000.  The  10 
per  cent  that  must  be  paid  in  upon  capital  stock  equals  $10,000.  An 
advance  from  the  General  Savings  Bank  equal  to  50  per  cent  of  the 
capital  stock  subscribed,  but  unpaid,  namely,  $45,000,  is  immediately 
available.  Thus  the  total  sum  immediately  available  is  $55,000.  Let 
us  suppose  that  a  workingman  wants  to  build  a  house  worth  $2,000. 
He  pays  10  per  cent  of  this  at  the  outset  to  the  loan  company,  or  what 
is  equal  to  this  step,  perhaps,  pays  for  a  lot.  The  sum  of  $1,800  remains 
to  be  found.  The  loan  company  from  its  $55,000  advances  to  him  $600, 
and  the  General  Savings  Bank  then  advances  on  the  security  of  the 
property  three-fifths  of  its  value,  which  is  $1,200.  The  sum  of  $200  has 
been  paid  in  at  the  beginning  by  the  workingman,  and  the  condition 
that  the  total  value  of  the  property  shall  exceed  by  at  least  one-ninth 
the  total  loan  is  complied  with.  In  paying  off  these  obligations  the 
$600  loaned  by  the  company  is  first  discharged.  Then  commences  the 
liquidation  of  the  loan  from  the  General  Savings  Bank.  While  the 
money  for  the  first  loan  comes  from  the  savings  bank,  it  does  not  come 
directly  from  the  bank  to  the  individual  workman,  but  through  a 
responsible  intermediary,  the  loan  company. 

Cooperative  loan  companies  receive  advances  equal  to  three-fifths  of 
the  value  of  the  property,  but  the  value  of  the  property  must  exceed 
by  at  least  one-ninth  the  total  loan.  This  is  the  only  advance  made 
by  the  General  Savings  Bank.  Building  companies,  whether  joint  stock 
or  cooperative,  may  obtain  advances  equal  to  one-half  of  the  value  of 
the  property  belonging  to  them.  In  all  cases  every  transaction  with  a 
third  party  must  be  ratified  by  the  administrative  board  of  the  company. 

These  building  companies  are  not  required  to  limit  their  dividends, 
as  are  the  loan  companies,  both  joint  stock  and  cooperative.  The  3 
per  cent  dividends  in  the  latter  case  are  on  the  capital  stock  paid  in 
and  not  on  the  whole  capital  stock.  In  the  case  supposed  $300  annually 
would  be  all  that  would  be  required  to  pay  the  prescribed  dividend  on 
the  sums  paid  in  on  the  shares. 

In  case  a  workingman  has  more  than  one-tenth  of  the  value  of  his 
property  which  he  wishes  to  pay  down  at  the  beginning,  the  sum 
loaned  him  by  the  company  would  be  lessened;  that  is,  taking  the  case 
already  supposed,  if  he  paid  down  $400  he  would  get  from  the  com- 
jmiiv  $400  instead  of  $600.  The  amount  advanced  by  the  savings 
bank  on  his  property  would  not  be  diminished,  except  where  the  work¬ 
ingman  pays,  for  example,  $800.  In  such  a  case  the  advance  made  by 
the  savings  bank  would  be  equal  to  the  whole  amount  of  the  loan,  that 
is,  1,-jOO.  The  principle  underlying  the  reimbursement  to  the  loan 
company  hist  is  that  the  shareholders,  who  do  not  hold  as  good  secu¬ 
rity  as  the  savings  bank,  shall  be  first  paid  off,  and  this  is  an  encour¬ 
agement  to  public-spirited  gentlemen  to  assist  in  the  work  of  extending 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  143 


the  proprietorship  of  homes.  But  there  is  another  reason,  and  that 
is  that  this  provision  gives  added  elasticity  to  the  work  of  the  com¬ 
pany.  More  funds  are  available  to  continue  its  operations  in  loaning  to 
other  people.  They  need  not  wait  until  all  houses  have  been  paid  for, 
but  may  turn  over  the  receipts  as  they  come  in  for  the  extension  of  the 
work  to  other  beneficiaries.  Thus  a  spirit  of  thrift  engendered  by  a 
good  example  in  a  community  is  capable  of  almost  indefinite  extension 
upon  a  small  original  capital.  The  sums  are  simply  turned  over  and 
over  again,  and  as  often  as  they  are  turned  over  the  loans  from  the 
General  Savings  Bank  are  available.  Taking  the  case  supposed,  in 
round  numbers  ninety  two  workingmen,  having  $200  apiece  to  start 
with,  or  a  plot  of  land  of  equal  value,  through  the  mediation  of  a  joint 
stock  loan  company  with  a  capital  of  $100,000,  but  of  which  the  sub¬ 
scribers  are  never  called  upon  to  pay  more  than  $10,000,  can  be  pro¬ 
vided  each  with  a  home  worth  $2,000. 

The  reason  why  cooperative  companies  are  not  permitted  to  secure 
advances  upon  their  capital  stock  is  that  payments  on  the  latter  are 
entirely  in  the  form  of  periodical  installments  and  no  sutficient  guaran¬ 
tee  is  offered.  There  does  not  exist  the  same  degree  of  solvency.  Its 
operations  alone  can  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  therefore  the 
advance  accorded  is  based  upon  the  value  of  something  tangible, 
namely,  the  property  itself. 

Joint  stock  loan  companies,  though  they  receive  the  money  at  2\  per 
cent,  are  allowed  to  charge  4  per  cent  per  annum  on  their  loans.  The 
object  is  to  secure  a  sound  financial  basis  and  to  assure  the  payment  of 
a  3  per  cent  dividend  on  the  paid  up  value  of  their  shares.  Three  and 
one-half  per  cent,  doubtless,  would  have  answered,  but  with  4  per  cent 
a  reserve  is  accumulated.  In  order  that  this  reserve  may  not  become  a 
temptation  to  the  company  and  a  dissolution  be  forced  with  the  aim  of 
dividing  it,  the  law  prescribes  that  after  the  dissolution  of  a  joint  stock 
loan  company  for  any  cause  whatever  there  shall  be  deducted  from 
the  reserve,  after  paying  back  the  capital  stock  of  the  shareholders, 
a  sum  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  total  interest  paid  or  payable  upon  the 
advafices  received  during  its  existence  from  the  General  Savings  Bank. 
The  sum  thus  deducted  is  remitted  by  assignees  of  the  company  to  the 
savings  bank  as  an  indemnity  on  account  of  the  low  rate  of  interest, 
namely,  2£  per  cent,  which  it  charged.  Thus  when  the  work  of  these 
companies  ceases  the  savings  bank  is  indemnified  for  the  exceptional 
advantages  which  it  has  offered.  The  fear,  therefore,  that  the  general 
public  who  may  be  depositors  will  lose  anything,  even  in  an  economic 
sense,  by  the  policy  of  favoring  workingmen’s  dwellings,  can  not  be 
maintained. 

In  order  that  the  bona  fide  workingman  alone  may  benefit  by  the 
advantages  accorded,  the  directors  of  the  savings  bank  have  fixed 
apon  5,500  francs  ($1,061.50)  as  the  maximum  cost,  land  included,  of 
a  workingman’s  dwelling. 


144  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  plan  provides  that  payments  may  be  completed  in  ten,  fifteen, 
twenty,  or  twenty-five  years,  as  the  borrower  may  elect.  He  may  pay 
an  installment  every  mouth,  or  make  twenty- four  or  fifty-two  payments 
annually.  The  following  table  shows  an  account  of  a  loan  of  $1,000 
where  repayment  is  provided  for  in  ten  years: 


STATEMENT  OF  AN  ACCOUNT  ON  A  TEN-TEAR  LOAN  OF  $1,00Q. 


Tears. 

Balance 
of  account. 

Loan  from 
General 
Savings 
Bank. 

Loan 
from  loan 
company. 

1 . . . 

$1,  000. 00 
992.  00 
835.  00 
744.  00 
650. 00 
552. 00 
450.  00 
344.  00 
233.  00 
124.  00 

$666.  00 
666.  00 
666.  00 
666.  00 
650.  00 
552.  00 
450.  00 
344.  00 
233. 00 
124.  00 

$334. 00 
256. 00 
169.  00 
78. 00 

2 . 

3 . 

4  . 

5  . 

6 . . 

7 . 

8 . . . 

9 . 

10 . 

Advances  may  be  made  by  loan  companies  to  anybody  constructing 
or  purchasing  workingmen’s  houses.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the 
builder  or  acquirer  shall  occupy  the  structure  himself.  Only  the  work¬ 
ingman,  however,  may  enjoy  a  reduction  of  taxes,  registration  fees, 
etc.  In  certain  localities,  agricultural  districts,  for  example,  and  other 
places  where  no  intermediary  companies  of  this  sort  exist,  a  working¬ 
man,  through  a  solvent  neighbor  who  will  go  security  for  him,  may  get 
money  from  the  General  Savings  Bank  at  3  per  cent.  In  the  first 
instance  the  latter  institution  inquires  of  the  local  committee  of  pat¬ 
ronage  about  the  habitation  which  it  is  proposed  to  buy  or  construct. 
If  approval  is  given,  the  guarantor  treats  with  the  workingman,  with 
whom  he  opens  a  credit  account  guaranteed  by  a  mortgage  upon  the 
property,  and  undertakes  the  collection  of  the  periodical  payments 
necessary  to  pay  the  savings  bank  the  annual  sum  required.  The 
workingman  gives  a  note  to  his  guarantor,  who  gets  it  discounted  at 
the  savings  bank  at  3  per  cent.  The  interest  is  .deducted  in  advance, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  the  note  is  renewed,  after  paying  the 
installment  necessary  to  extinguish  the  debt  in  the  number  of  years 
agreed  upon.  The  note  is  renewed,  therefore,  from  year  to  year  for  an 
amount  equal  to  the  outstanding  obligation. 

In  order  to  obviate  defaults  arising  from  guarantors  becoming  insol¬ 
vent  or  from  their  death.,  the  General  Savings  Bank  protects  itself  in  a 
manner  permitted  by  the  law  of  May  18, 1 873.  In  order  to  secure  to  the 
workingman  absolute  negotiability  of  the  contract,  it  is  stipulated  that 
the  note  can  be  indorsed  only  at  the  counter  of  the  General  Savings 
Bank,  and  that  it  may  only  benefit,  after  the  creditor,  the  guarantor  of 
the  mortgage. 

To  facilitate  relations  between  the  companies,  their  borrowers,  and 
the  savings  bank,  the  administrative  board  has  prepared  and  places 
at  the  disposition  of  interested  parties  complete  sets  of  model  forms, 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  145 


tables  of  annual  payments,  models  of  bookkeeping,  etc.  The  minister 
of  agriculture,  industry,  and  public  works,  M.  deBruyn,  in  1890  directed 
the  well-known  architect,  M.  Neve,  and  Baron  de  Royer  de  Dour  to  pre¬ 
pare  a  series  of  plans  of  different  types  of  workingmen’s  dwellings. 
This  volume,  with  all  other  data,  is  placed  at  the  disposition  of  com¬ 
mittees  of  patronage  and  local  companies  interested  in  the  housing  of 
working  people  to  assist  them  in  their  work. 

The  Belgian  law  provides  for  the  acquisition  of  a  home  to  his  family  in 
case  of  the  death  of  the  wage  earner  before  all  payments  had  been  made. 
In  case  of  the  death  of  the  head  of  the  family  the  creditor  would  have 
had  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  money  or  would  be  obliged  to  dispossess 
the  widow  and  children  had  not  a  happy  combination  of  life  insurance 
with  repayment  of  loans  been  provided.  A  royal  decree  of  July  G,  1891, 
permitted  the  General  Savings  Bank  to  engage  in  life  insurance  opera¬ 
tions  in  connection  with  its  housing  activities,  under  the  law  of  August 
9,  1889.  It  is  authorized  to  insure  the  life  of  the  borrower  in  order  to 
guarantee  reimbursement  of  the  loan  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  party 
insured  at  any  time  during  the  period.  An  insurance  bureau,  having 
distinct  accounts,  is  annexed  to  the  General  Savings  Bank.  Annual 
financial  statements  of  this  department  are  published.  Farr’s  life  tables 
are  the  accepted  basis  of  calculation,  and  the  premium  rates  are  fixed 
at  3  per  cent  per  annum -and  3  per  cent  for  expenses.  Two-thirds  of 
the  sum  set  aside  for  expenses  is  turned  over  to  the  General  Savings 
Bank  at  the  end  of  each  year,  and  with  this  the  latter  undertakes  to 
bear  the  whole  of  the  business  expenses.  The  remaining  one-tliird  is 
put  aside  as  a  reserve  fund  for  the  insurance  department.  Should  this 
reserve  become  exhausted  the  General  Savings  Bank  must  make  up  the 
deficiency  by  advancing  sums  to  be  ultimately  repaid  from  the  insur¬ 
ance  department.  Money  is  advanced  for  the  construction  or  purchase 
of  a  house,  and  a  policy  of  insurance  on  the  life  of  the  debtor  is  taken 
out  by  the  creditor.  Appropriate  declarations  set  forth  among  other 
things  the  actual  state  of  the  health  and  the  habits  of  the  person  to  be 
insured,  and  these  furnish  the  basis  upon  which  the  insurance  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  General  Savings  Bank  determines  whether  or  not  to  accept 
the  candidate.  Refusal  may  be  made  without  filing  reasons.  The  pre¬ 
mium  is  indivisible,  and  must  be  paid  in  advance  for  each  insurance 
year.  Premiums  are  paid  at  the  local  agency  of  the  General  Savings 
Bank,  where  the  contract  is  executed. 

The  person  insured  has  the  right  of  repurchase,  the  value  being  fixed 
as  follows :  The  sura  assured  is  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
premiums  paid  and  the  whole  number  of  premiums  stipulated  in  the 
contract  and  discounted  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent  for  the  time  from  the 
last  premium  payment  to  the  maturity  of  the  policy.  The  insurance  is 
surrendered  without  any  other  formality  in  case  of  nonpayment  of  the 
premium  within  thirty  days  from  the  date  of  its  falling  due,  but  the 
H.  Ex.  354 - 10 


146  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


beneficiary  receives  a  sum  equal  to  the  repurchase  value  previously  men- 
tioned.  The  beneficiary  may  within  five  months  after  default  demand 
the  resuscitation  of  his  policy,  but  he  must  produce  a  new  declaration 
accompanied  by  a  medical  certificate.  The  insurance  may  then  become 
operative  upon  the  payment  of  the  accrued  premium  increased  by  3 
per  cent,  and  by  restoring  the  repurchase  commutation,  augmented  by 
interest  at  3  per  cent  per  annum. 

The  beneficiary  of  an  insurance  policy  is  obliged  to  inform  the  manag 
ing  director  of  the  insurance  department  of  any  change  of  occupation. 

Insurance  is  nullified  and  all  premiums  forfeited  in  the  following 

cases : 

(a)  If  declarations  were  made  in  bad  faith  or  have  been  withheld, 
which  if  disclosed  would  have  shown  an  increase  of  risk. 

( b )  Neglect  of  the  beneficiary  to  make  notification  of  changes  of  occu¬ 
pation,  etc. 

( c )  In  case  of  death  as  a  result  of  excessive  habitual  alcoholic  indul¬ 
gence. 

(d)  In  case  of  suicide. 

( e )  In  case  the  beneficiary  secures  the  death  or  aids  in  injuring  the 
health  of  the  insured. 

The  death  of  the  individual  insured  must  be  certified  within  three 
months,  and  the  amount  of  the  policy  will  be  paid  to  the  beneficiary  at 
the  end  of  the  insurance  year  in  which  the  death  took  place,  or  it  may 
be  paid  at  once,  less  a  discount  of  3  per  cent. 

The  law  permits  a  workingman  as  old  as  fifty-five  years  to  contract 
insurance. 

The  annual  premiums  on  life  insurance  policies  of  $1,000,  where  the 
duration  of  contract  is  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  and  twenty-five  years, 
applicable  to  persons  from  21  to  55  years  of  age,  appear  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  table.  This  assures  the  repayment  of  the  $1,000  at  the  maturity  of 
the  policy  or  on  the  death  of  the  insured  if  he  should  die  during  the 
period. 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  147 


ANNUAL  PREMIUMS  AT  3  PER  CENT  ON  A  MIXED  INSURANCE  OF  $1,000. 


Age  at  next  birthday  (years). 

Duration  of  contract. 

10  years. 

15  years. 

20  years. 

25  years. 

$91. 83 
91.  92 

$58. 89 
58.  99 

$42.  84 
42.  96 

$33.  56 
33.  69 

92.01 

59. 10 

43. 08 

33. 88 

. 

92.10 

59. 21 

43.  21 

34.  00 

92.19 

59. 32 

43. 34 

34. 16 

92.  29 

59.44 

43.49 

34.33 

92.  38 

59.  56 

43.  66 

34. 51 

92.50 

59. 70 

43.  80 

34.  70 

. 

92.  61 

59.84 

43.  97 

34.91 

92.  74 

59.  99 

44. 15 

35. 13 

92.  87 

60. 15 

44. 35 

35. 37 

93.  00 

60.  32 

44.56 

35.  63 

93. 15 

60.51 

44.78 

35. 91 

. 

93.  31 

60.71 

45. 03 

36.  21 

. 

93.49 

60. 92 

45. 30 

36.53 

93.  67 

61. 15 

45. 58 

36. 88 

. 

93. 87 

61.40 

45.90 

37.26 

94.  09 

61.  67 

46.  23 

37. 67 

. 

94.  32 

61.  96 

46.60 

38. 12 

.  . 

94.  57 

62.28 

46. 99 

38.  60 

. 

94.  84 

62.  63 

47.41 

95. 12 

63. 00 

47.88 

95. 44 

63. 40 

48.  38 

95.  78 

63.  84 

48. 92 

96. 15 

64.32 

49. 51 

96.  56 

64.  83 

97.  01 

65.  39 

97. 49 

66.  01 

98.  03 

66.68 

98.  61 

67.42 

. 

99.  26 

99.  90 

100.  60 

101.36 

102. 20 

The  repurchase  value  of  a  x>olicy  of  mixed  insurance  for  $1,000  in  case 
of  nonpayment  of  premium  is  given  in  the  annexed  tabular  statement: 

REPURCHASE  VALUE  OF  A  POLICY  OF  MIXED  INSURANCE  FOR  $1,000  IN  CASE  OF 
THE  NONPAYMENT  OF  THE  With  PREMIUM. 


Duration  of  contract. 


7/ls 

10  years. 

15  years. 

20  years. 

25  years. 

$76.64 
157.  88 

$44. 07 
90. 79 

$28.  51 
58.74 

$19. 68 
40.53 

243.  93 

140.28 

90. 75 

62.63 

334.  99 

192. 65 

124.63 

86.  01 

431. 30 

248. 03 

160. 46 

110. 73 

533. 09 

306.  56 

198. 33 

136. 87 

640. 60 

368. 39 

238. 33 

164. 47 

754.  08 

433. 65 

280.  55 

193.  61 

873. 79 

502.49 

325. 09 

224. 34 

575. 07 

372. 04 

256.  74 

651.56 

421.53 

290.  89 

732. 11 

473.  64 

326.  86 

816.  92 

528.  51 

364. 72 

906. 15 

586.  24 

404.  56 

646:95 

446. 46 

710. 79 

490. 51 

777.  87 

536.  80 

848. 34 

585. 43 

922. 33 

636. 49 

690.  09 

746.  33 

805. 32 

867. 19 

932.04 

148  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


A  table  is  given  below  showing  the  amount  to  be  repaid  annually  on 
a  loan  of  $1,000  at  4  per  cent,  which  is  the  figure  demanded  by  joint 
stock  loan  companies,  where  the  duration  of  contract  varies  from  ten 
to  twenty-five  years,  both  with  and  without  the  insurance  feature: 


AMOUNT  TO  BE  PAID  ANNUALLY  BY  THE  BORROWER  OE  $1,000  AT  4  PER  CENT 

WITH  AND  WITHOUT  INSURANCE. 

[The  annual  payments  in  case  of  a  loan  with  insurance  are  obtained  by  adding  to  the  insurance 
premium  to  he  paid  to  the  hank  (see  p.  147)  the  sum  of  $40,  being  the  interest  due  on  the  loan.] 


Duration  of  contract. 


Age  at  next  birth- 

10  years. 

15  years. 

20  years. 

25  years. 

day  (years). 

Without 

With  in- 

Without 

With  in- 

Without 

With  in- 

Without 

With  in- 

in- 

in- 

in- 

in 

surance. 

snrance. 

surance. 

surance. 

21 . 

$123.  29 

$131. 83 

$89. 94 

$98.  89 

$73.  58 

$82.  84 

$64.  01 

$73.  56 

22 . 

123.  29 

131.92 

89.  94 

98.99 

73.58 

82.  96 

64.01 

73.69 

23 . 

123.  29 

132.  01 

89.94 

99. 10 

73.58 

83.  08 

64.  01 

73.  88 

24 . 

123.  29 

132. 10 

89.  94 

89.  21 

73.  58 

83.21 

64.01 

74. 00 

25 . 

123.  29 

132. 19 

89.  94 

99.  32 

73.  58 

83.34 

64.01 

74. 16 

26 . 

123.  29 

132.  29 

89.  94 

99. 44 

73.58 

83.49 

64.  01 

74. 33 

27 . 

123.  29 

132.  38 

89.94 

99.  56 

73.58 

83. 66 

64.01 

74.  51 

28 . 

123. 29 

132.50 

89.94 

99.  70 

73.  58 

83.80 

64.  01 

74.70 

29 . 

123.  29 

132.  61 

89.94 

99.84 

73.58 

83. 97 

64.  01 

74. 91 

30 . 

123.  29 

132.  74 

89.  94 

99.  99 

73.58 

84.15 

64.  01 

75. 13 

31 . 

123. 29 

132.  87 

89. 94 

100. 15 

73.  58 

84.  35 

64.  01 

75.37 

32 . 

123.  29 

133.00 

89.  94 

100.  32 

73.  58 

84.56 

64.  01 

75.  63 

33 . 

123. 29 

133. 15 

89.94 

100.  51 

73.  58 

84.  78 

64.01 

75.91 

34 . 

123.  29 

133. 31 

89. 94 

100.71 

73.  58 

85. 03 

64. 01 

76.21 

35 . 

123.  29 

133.  49 

89.94 

100. 92 

73.  58 

85.30 

64.01 

76.  53 

36 . 

123.29 

133.  67 

89.  94 

101.15 

73.  58 

85.  58 

64.  01 

76.  88 

37 . 

123. 29 

133.  87 

89.  94 

101.40 

73. 58 

85.  90 

04. 01 

77.  26 

38 . 

123.29 

134.  09 

89.  94 

101.  67 

73.58 

86. 23 

64.  01 

77.  67 

39 . 

123.  29 

134.  32 

89.  94 

101.96 

73. 58 

86. 60 

64.  01 

78.12 

40 . 

123.  29 

134.  57 

89.94 

102. 28 

73.  58 

86. 99 

64.  01 

78.60 

41 . 

123. 29 

134.  84 

89.  94 

102.  63 

73. 58 

87.41 

42 . 

123. 29 

135.12 

89.  94 

103.  00 

73.58 

87.  88 

43 . 

123. 29 

135. 44 

89.  94 

103.  40 

73.  58 

88.  38 

44 . 

123.  29 

135. 78 

89.  94 

103.84 

73.  58 

88. 92 

45 . 

123. 29 

136. 15 

89.  94 

104. 32 

73. 58 

89.  51 

46 . 

123. 29 

136.  56 

89.  94 

104.  83 

47 . 

123.  29 

137.01 

89.  94 

105.39 

4S . 

123. 29 

137.  49 

89.  94 

106.  01 

49 . 

123.  29 

138. 03 

89. 94 

106.  68 

50 . 

123. 29 

138.  61 

89. 94 

107.  42 

123.  29 

139. 26 

52 . 

123. 29 

139. 90 

53 . 

123. 29 

140.  60 

54 . 

123.  29 

141.36 

55 . 

123. 29 

142. 20 

The  augmentation  involved  by  insurance  is  very  small  indeed.  The 
insurance  feature  is  due  most  largely  to  the  wisdom  and  sagacity  of 
M.  L6on  Mahillon,  the  present  managing  director  of  the  General  Sav¬ 
ings  Bank.  It  was  not  rendered  obligatory  at  the  outset  on  account  of 
the  hostility  shown  by  the  intermediary  companies,  but  in  order  to  force 
them  to  undertake  insurance  the  board  of  directors  of  the  General 
Savings  Bank,  November  10,  1S92,  issued  a  decree  stipulating  that 
advances  after  January  1,  1893,  at  per  cent  would  be  made  only  to 
those  accepting  the  life  insurance  feature.  Previously  about  one-half 
of  the  business  done  was  on  this  basis,  but  the  new  regulation  has 
had  such  a  marked  effect  that  nearly  all  the  companies  now  include 
insurance  in  their  operations. 


-  •• 

CHAPTER  VII. — INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  149 

The  number  of  companies  formed  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the 
proprietorship  of  workingmen’s  dwellings  in  the  autumn  of  1893  was 
sixty-four.  Fifty-six  of  these  were  joint  stock  in  form  and  eight  coop¬ 
erative.  The  total  capital  stock  of  the  former  class  amounted  to 
4, 434, GOO  francs  ($855,877.80).  A  commentary  and  full  information  as 
to  proceedings  are  given  in  two  most  interesting  pamphlets,  one  written 
by  M.  L6on  Maliillon  and  the  other  by  M.  Leon  Meerens. 

An  important  point  which,  it  is  claimed,  lias  been  settled  by  the 
Belgian  law  is  the  feasibility  of  national  moneyed  institutions,  such  as 
a  great  savings  bank  under  the  guarantee  of  the  state,  engaging 
largely  in  the  work  of  assisting  workingmen  to  become  proprietors  of 
homes.  A  national  savings  bank  offers  advantages  over  any  local 
institution.  In  the  first  place  its  operations  extend  throughout  the 
whole  country,  and  local  branches  exist  everywhere.  The  conditions 
upon  which  the  loans  are  given  are  uniform  throughout  the  land. 
There  are  certain  distinct  business  advantages  claimed  for  the  practice 
of  loaning  through  an  intermediary.  Account  keeping  and  receiving 
and  recording  weekly  or  monthly  payments  would  be  an  enormous  task 
for  a  national  or  state  institution  to  undertake.  Under  the  Belgian 
system  the  intermediary  companies  attend  to  all  such  work.  Moreover, 
local  organizations  can  watch  over  the  construction  and  see  that  the 
houses  built  are  such  as  befit  the  neighborhood.  The  fourth  advantage 
claimed  for  the  employment  of  an  intermediary  is  this:  When  debtors 
fail  to  meet  their  obligations,  local  companies,  acting  in  accordance  with 
their  principle  of  social  helpfulness,  can  much  better  take  into  consid¬ 
eration  the  circumstances  bringing  about  default  and  can  judge  whether 
leniency  should  or  should  not  be  extended. 

Those  in  a  position  to  know  say  that  formerly  the  idea  of  building 
workingmen’s  houses  directly  by  the  government  was  exceedingly  pop¬ 
ular  among  the  laboring  element  of  Belgium.  Recently  they  have  begun 
to  take  a  much  greater  interest  in  companies  created  under  the  law,  and 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  offered.  The  increase  in  the  number 
of  deposits,  all  guaranteed  by  the  government,  has  gone  steadily  on, 
showing  that  there  has  been  no  lack  of  confidence  in  the  bank  since 
housing  operations  were  begun.  The  total  increase  in  deposits  dur¬ 
ing  the  four  years  from  1886  to  1889,  inclusive,  was  93,527,010  francs 
($18,050,712.93);  during  the  next  four  years,  viz,  1890  to  1S93,  inclu¬ 
sive,  it  was  107,593,G7G  francs  ($20,765,579.47). 

The  complete  text  of  the  Belgian  law  of  August  9, 1889,  is  as  follows: 

TEXT  OF  THE  BELGIAN  LAW  OF  AUGUST  9,  1889. 

Article  1.  There  shall  be  established  in  each  administrative  district 
( arrondissement )  one  or  more  committees  authorized: 

(a)  To  encourage  the  construction  and  rental  of  healthy  dwellings 
for  workingmen,  and  their  sale  to  workingmen  for  cash  or  on  annual 
installments; 


150  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


( b )  To  study  all  that  concerns  the  healthfulness  of  houses  occupied 
by  working  people  and  the  hygiene  of  the  quarters  where  they  are 
chiefly  located; 

(c)  To  encourage  the  development  of  thrift  and  insurance,  as  well  as 
of  institutions  of  credit  or  of  mutual  relief  and  of  pension  funds. 

These  committees  shall  be  called  committees  of  patronage,  and  shall 
be  composed  of  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  eighteen  members, 
appointed  for  a  term  of  three  years,  to  wit,  three  to  ten  members  by 
the  permanent  delegation  in  the  provincial  council  and  from  two  to 
eight  members  by  the  government.  They  may  be  subdivided  into  sec¬ 
tions.  A  secretary  for  the  committees  and  their  sections  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  permanent  delegation. 

The  committees’  methods  of  performing  their  duties,  and  their  rela¬ 
tions  to  the  government,  the  provincial  and  communal  administrations, 
and  the  medical  commissions  shall  be  regulated  by  royal  decree,  with¬ 
out  interfering,  however,  with  the  powers  of  these  administrations  in 
the  matter  of  hygiene  and  public  health. 

Art.  2.  The  committees  of  patronage  shall  institute  and  distribute 
prizes  for  orderliness,  for  cleanliness,  and  for  thrift. 

They  are  empowered,  for  this  purpose,  to  receive  gifts  and  legacies 
of  personal  property,  as  well  as  subsidies  from  public  authorities. 

Art.  3.  Committees  of  patronage,  or  their  members,  shall  suggest 
either  to  the  communal  administration,  provincial  authority,  or  the 
general  government  such  measures  as  they  shall  deem  pertinent. 

They  shall  make  an  annual  report  of  their  transactions  to  the  minister 
of  agriculture,  industry,  and  public  works.  This  report  shall  be  com¬ 
municated  to  the  superior  council  of  hygiene,  and  each  commune  shall 
receive  a  copy  of  the  part  which  concerns  it. 

Art.  4.  Before  decreeing  an  expropriation  by  zones  in  the  quarters 
especially  inhabited  by  working  people,  the  government  shall  take  the 
advice  of  the  committee  of  patronage  upon  the  conditions  to  be  imposed 
for  the  resale  of  lands  comprised  in  such  expropriation. 

Art.  5.  The  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Gaisse  Generale  d^pargne  et 
de  Retraite )  is  authorized  to  employ  a  part  of  its  disposable  funds  in 
loans  made  to  aid  in  the  construction  or  purchase  of  workingmen’s 
houses,  after  having  first  asked  the  advice  of  the  committee  of 
patronage. 

These  loans  shall  be  like,  as  regards  their  form  and  duration,  the 
temporary  or  fixed  investments  of  the  bank. 

Art.  6.  The  board  of  directors  of  the  savings  bank  shall  determine 
the  rate  and  the  conditions  of  said  loans  with  the  approval  of  the 
minister  of  finance. 

Art.  7.  In  default  of  payment  at  maturity  of  sums  due  to  the  bank 
realization  on  the  security  which  has  been  furnished  shall  be  proceeded 
with  in  conformity  with  articles  4  to  t)  of  the  law  of  May  5,  1872. 

The  demand  shall  be  addressed  to  the  chief  judge  of  the  court  of 
first  instance.  This  tribunal  shall  take  cognizance  of  demurrers,  and 
notice  will  be  given  to  the  civil  authorities. 

Art.  8.  The  General  Savings  Bank  (la  Gaisse  Generale  dlEpargne 
et  de  Retraite)  is  authorized  to  negotiate  mixed  life  insurance  opera¬ 
tions  for  the  purpose  of  guaranteeing  the  reimbursement  at  the  end  of 
a  fixed  period,  or  upon  the  death  of  the  insured  if  occurring  before 
that  time,  of  loans  made  for  the  construction  or  purchase  of  a  dwelling. 

The  general  conditions  as  well  as  the  premium  rates  of  this  insur¬ 
ance  shall  be  submitted  for  royal  sanction. 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES  151 


The  royal  decree  shall  indicate  the  table  of  mortality,  rate  of  inter¬ 
est,  and  the  deduction  for  administrative  expenses,  which  shall  have 
served  as  a  basis  for  the  fixing-  of  premium  rates. 

Art.  9.  The  provinces,  communes,  hospitals,  and  relief  bureaus 
(bureaux  de  bienfaisance)  may  receive  gifts  and  legacies  for  the  con¬ 
struction  of  workingmen’s  homes. 

Art.  10  (as  amended  by  law  of  July  18,  1893).  There  are  exempted  » 
from  the  personal  tax  on  the  rental  value,  the  doors,  windows,  and 
furniture,  and  from  all  other  similar  provincial  or  communal  taxes  the 
workingmen  or  former  workingmen  incapable  of  laboring,  who  not  being 
proprietors  of  other  property  than  that  in  which  they  live  and  that 
which  they  cultivate,  occupy,  either  as  owners  or  as  tenants  of  non¬ 
resident  landlords,  a  habitation  with  an  assessed  revenue  not  exceed¬ 
ing  72  francs  ($13.90)  in  communes  of  less  than  3,000  inhabitants,  90 
francs  ($18.53)  in  communes  of  3,000  to  20,000  inhabitants,  120  francs 
($23.10)  in  communes  of  20,000  to  40,000  inhabitants,  144  francs  ($27.79) 
in  communes  of  40,000  to  100,000  inhabitants,  and  171  francs  ($33)  in 
communes  of  100,000  inhabitants  or  more. 

For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  these  dispositions  the  communes  are 
classified  according  to  the  total  population  as  determined  at  each 
decennial  census,  and  the  revenue  from  dwellings  not  yet  assessed,  or 
not  assessed  in  separate  parcels,  is  determined  in  the  same  manner  as 
land  taxes. 

However,  when  an  agglomeration  extends  over  several  communes 
these  communes  or  their  agglomerated  parts  can,  in  so  far  as  the  rate 
of  the  assessment  revenue  entitles  to  the  exemption,  by  royal  decree 
be  placed  in  the  category  to  which  belongs  the  most  populous  commune. 

This  exemption  is  not  granted,  first,  to  workingmen  who  let  any  part 
of  their  dwellings  to  more  than  one  subtenant  or  for  purposes  of  trad¬ 
ing  of  any  kind  whatever;  second,  to  workingmen  who  cultivate  on 
their  own  account  pieces  of  land  more  than  50  ares  (1.2355  acres)  or 
above  100  ares  (2.471  acres),  according  as  among  the  parcels  of  ground 
other  than  the  garden  there  are  or  are  not  some  of  which  the  assessed 
rental  valuation  is  beyond  50  francs  ($9.65)  per  hectare  (2.471  acres). 

Art.  11.  Companies  having  for  their  exclusive  object  the  construe 
tion,  purchase,  sale,  or  rental  of  houses  destined  for  working  people 
shall  assume  the  joint  stock  or  cooperative  form  without  losing  then- 
civil  character  by  submitting  to  the  conditions,  in  the  first  case,  of  sec¬ 
tion  4,  and  in  the  second  case,  of  section  6,  and  in  both  cases,  of  section 
8  of  the  law  of  May  18,  1873,  amended  by  the  law  of  May  22,  1886. 

Art.  12.  The  acts  and  minutes  relative  to  the  formation,  modifica¬ 
tion,  or  dissolution  of  companies  having  for  their  object  the  operations 
enumerated  in  article  11  are  exempt  from  stamp  tax,  and  are  registered 
gratis,  unless  they  contain  matters  subject  to  the  proportional  tax  for 
registration. 

Extracts  or  copies  of  these  acts  and  minutes  are  likewise  exempt 
from  the  stamp  tax. 

Neither  are  they  subject  to  the  payment  of  dues  and  registry  fees. 

Art.  13.  There  are  exempt  from  the  stamp  tax  and  the  formality  of 
registration  all  acts  under  private  signature  not  embraced  in  the  terms 
of  the  preceding  section  and  all  minutes  and  acts  concerning  exclu¬ 
sively  the  general  business  management,  as  well  as  the  warrants  of  the 
founders  for  the  establishment  of  the  company  and  authorizations  of 
shareholders  in  connection  with  their  relations  with  the  company. 

Arts.  14  to  19.  [Refer  to  reduction  of  taxation  upon  incomes  of  com¬ 
panies  or  public  administrative  bodies  engaged  in  transactions  having 


152  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


reference  to  the  purchase,  building,  sale,  or  rental  of  workingmen’s 
houses.  These  reductions  are  very  considerable,  and  are  designed  by 
the  government  especially  to  favor  the  work  of  companies  of  this  sort.] 

Art.  20.  Article  6  of  the  law  of  July  5, 1871,  is  repealed. 

However,  houses  constructed  before  January  1,  1889,  by  joint  stock 
companies  having  for  tbeir  object  the  construction,  purchase,  sale,  or 
rental  of  houses  destined  for  working  people  shall  continue  to  enjoy  the 
benefits  of  exemptions  fixed  by  articles  1  and  2  of  the  law  of  March  25, 
1828. 

The  law  of  August  12,1862,  concerning  fees  for  registration  and  mort¬ 
gage  transfers,  and  the  law  of  June  20,  1867,  relative  to  the  joint  stock 
form  of  companies  for  providing  workingmen’s  houses,  are  repealed. 

Art.  21.  Personal  tax,  so  far  as  it  concerns  the  last  two  quarters  of 
the  fiscal  year  1889,  including  the  provincial  and  communal  taxes,  shall 
not  be  collected  from  those  who  by  article  10  cease  to  owe  it,  and  those 
who  have  i)aid  shall  be  reimbursed. 

The  tax  shall  be  considered  as  not  existing  and  will  not  figure  in  the 
determination  of  the  electoral  franchise.  The  restitution  shall  be  made 
without  further  formality. 

FRANCE. 

In  France  the  necessity  for  encouraging  popular  proprietorship  of 
houses  has  long  been  appreciated.  Little,  however,  has  been  done 
except  in  a  few  specific  centers.  Of  the  10,000,000  francs  ($1,930,000) 
voted  5y  the  French  Government  in  1852  for  workingmen’s  houses 
6,000,000  francs  ($1,158,000)  weie  given  to  the  Convalescent  Homes 
at  Vincennes  and  Vesinet,  and  2,000,000  francs  ($386,000)  for  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  block  dwellings  on  the  boulevard  Diderot,  which  are  now 
occupied  by  persons  in  fairly  comfortable  circumstances.  They  rent  for 
106,000  francs  ($20,458)  annually.  The  2,000,000  francs  ($386,000)  which 
remained  were  employed  in  subsidizing  workingmen’s  dwellings,  but 
the  conditions  imposed  by  the  architect  and  the  charges  were  so  severe 
tli at  a  great  many  enterprises  failed.  The  Messrs.  Pereire,  who  received 
part  of  this  subsidy,  built  in  the  rue  Boursault  a  vast  building,  contain¬ 
ing  204  dwellings,  but  this  enterprise  failed  because  of  the  severity  of 
the  rules  and  regulations  for  governing  tenants.  The  emperor  himself 
constructed  forty-one  houses  in  the  avenue  Daumesnil,  which  he  offered 
to  the  workingmen’s  society  on  condition  that  its  members  subscribe 
1,000  shares  of  100  francs  ($19.30)  each.  This  was  done  and  the  donation 
was  made.  The  association  borrowed  200,000  francs  ($38,600)  from  the 
Credit  Fonder  and  constructed  block  dwellings  at  Grenelle  and  Belle¬ 
ville.  This  scheme  likewise  failed,  probably  from  incapacity  on  the  part 
of  the  directing  board.  These  repeated  failures  discouraged  parties 
who  were  interested  in  the  housing  problem.  Among  these  single 
individuals  who  took  hold  of  the  work  on  their  own  account  with  the 
aim  of  making  money,  while  not  ignoring  philanthropy,  was  M.  Emile 
Cacheux,  who  has  built  largely  in  other  parts  of  Paris.  He  has  built 
mostly  for  rental,  but  especially  with  the  object  of  permitting  tenants  to 
purchase  the  property,  offering  them  exceptional  advantages,  some- 


CHAPTER  VII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  153 

times  advancing  three  fourths  of  the  sum  necessary  to  make  repayment 
in  fifteen  years. 

Two  or  three  years  ago  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  by  M.  Jules  Siegfried,  ex-minister  of  commerce  and  industry. 
This  measure  became  a  law  November  30,  1891.  The  abstract  which 
follows  shows  that  while  there  are  important  differences  in  the  func¬ 
tions  of  local  committees,  in  the  constitution  of  intermediary  agencies, 
and  as  regards  remissions  of  taxation,  the  cardinal  principles  of  loans 
from  national  savings  institutions  and  the  combination  of  life  insur¬ 
ance  with  repayment  of  loans  by  installments  are  the  same  as  in  the 
Belgian  law  of  August  9, 1889. 

LAW  OF  NOVEMBER  30,  1894,  RELATING  TO  CHEAP  DWELLINGS. 

Article  1.  There  shall  be  established  in  each  department  one  or 
more  committees  on  cheap  dwellings. 

The  object  of  these  committees  is  to  encourage  the  building  of  health¬ 
ful  and  cheap  houses,  either  by  individuals  or  companies,  with  a  view 
to  rent  them  or  to  sell  them,  to  be  paid  for  at  the  expiration  of  a  fixed 
period  or  in  installments,  by  persons  not  owning  houses,  such  as  work¬ 
men  or  employees  living  principally  by  their  work. or  salary,  or  by  those 
interested,  for  their  own  personal  use. 

Art.  2.  These  committees  may  receive  grants  from  the  state,  from 
departments,  and  from  communes,  as  well  as  gifts  and  legacies,  under 
the  conditions  prescribed  by  article  910  of  the  civil  code  for  establish¬ 
ments  of  public  utility. 

Nevertheless  they  can  not  own  any  real  estate  other  than  is  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  transaction  of  their  business. 

They  can  make  inquiries,  open  competitions  in  architecture,  distribute 
prizes  for  orderliness  and  neatness,  give  pecuniary  encouragements,  and 
further,  generally,  employ  the  natural  means  to  arouse  the  initiative  in 
the  building  and  improvement  of  cheap  dwellings. 

Should  the  committees  cease  to  exist,  their  assets  after  liquidation 
shall  devolve,  under  advice  of  the  superior  council  instituted  in  article 
14  hereafter,  to  the  companies  for  building  cheap  dwellings,  to  provident 
associations,  and  to  public  relief  bureaus  ( bureaux  de  bienfaisance )  within 
the  jurisdiction. 

Art.  3.  The  expenses  for  rent  and  for  salaries,  the  allowance  to  the 
secretary  of  the  committee,  and  the  fees  for  attendance  which  may 
be  allowed  in  place  of  mileage  to  members  of  the  committee  not  living 
in  the  locality  where  meetings  are  held,  may  be  fixed  by  the  general 
council  in  charge  of  the  departmental  budget. 

Art.  4.  These  committees  are  instituted  by  decree  of  the  president 
of  the  republic,  with  the  advice  of  the  general  council  (of  the  depart¬ 
ment)  and  of  the  superior  council  on  cheap  dwellings.  The  same  decree 
determines  the  extent  of  their  jurisdiction  and  fixes  the  number  of 
their  members  within  the  limit  of  not  less  than  nine  nor  more  than 
twelve. 

A  third  of  the  members  of  the  committee  is  named  by  the  general 
council,  which  chooses  them  from  the  general  councilors,  the  mayors 
and  the  members  of  the  chamber  of  commerce,  or  of  the  consulting 
chambers  of  aits  and  manufactures  within  the  committee’s  district. 

The  other  two-thirds  are  named  by  the  prefect,  one  third  from  per¬ 
sons  specially  versed  in  questions  of  hygiene,  building  and  social  eco- 


154  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

nomics;  the  other  one-third  from  members  of  societies  for  building 
cheap  dwellings,  mutual  provident  and  sayings  societies,  and  regis¬ 
tered  trades  unions. 

These  committees  so  formed  make  their  by-laws,  which  are  submitted 
to  the  prefect.  They  elect  their  president  and  secretary.  The  latter 
can  be  taken  from  outside  the  committee. 

These  committees  are  named  for  three  years. 

Their  commissions  may  be  renewed. 

Art.  5.  The  advantages  granted  by  the  present  law  apply  exclu¬ 
sively  : 

In  that  which  concerns  the  individual  dwellings  destined  to  be 
acquired  by  the  persons  mentioned  in  article  1,  or  built  by  them,  to 
real  estate  of  which  the  net  income  liable  to  the  land  tax,  determined 
according  to  the  law  of  August  8,  1890,  does  not  exceed  by  more  than 
one- tenth; 

In  communes  of  less  than  1,000  inhabitants,  90  francs  ($17.37);  of 
1,001  to  5,000  inhabitants,  150  francs  ($28.95) ;  of  5,001  to  30,000  inhab¬ 
itants,  170  francs  ($32.81) ;  of  30,001  to  200,000  inhabitants,  and  in  those 
which  are  situated  within  a  radius  of  40  kilometers  (24.85  miles)  of  Paris, 
220  francs  ($42.46) ;  of  200,001  inhabitants  and  more,  300  francs  ($57.90) ; 
in  Paris,  375  francs  ($72.38). 

In  that  which  coucerns  individual  houses  or  block  buildings  des¬ 
tined  to  be  rented,  to  those  of  which  the  net  income  taxable,  for  their 
entirety  or  for  each  of  the  lodgings  composing  them  and  destined  to  be 
rented  separately,  does  not  amount  to  a  sum  greater  than  those  which 
are  indicated  above  for  each  category  of  communes. 

Art.  6.  The  public  relief  bureaus  ( les  bureaux  de  bienfaisance ),  hospi¬ 
tals,  and  asylums  can,  with  the  authorization  of  the  prefect,  employ  a 
portion  of  their  patrimony,  which  must  not  exceed  a  fifth,  in  the  build¬ 
ing  of  cheap  houses,  within  the  limits  of  their  charitable  jurisdiction,  as 
well  as  in  loans  on  mortgages  to  companies  for  building  cheap  houses, 
and  to  loan  companies  (which  not  building  themselves,  have  for  their 
object  the  facilitating  the  buying  or  the  building  of  such  houses),  and 
in  bonds  of  these  companies. 

The  Bank  of  Deposits  and  Consignments  (la  Cause  des  Depots  et  Con¬ 
signations)  is  authorized  to  use  as  much  as  a  fifth  of  the  reserve  arising 
from  the  employment  of  the  funds  of  the  savings  banks  which  it  has 
built  up,  in  negotiable  securities  of  the  building  and  loan  companies 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Art.  7.  The  life  insurance  fund,  instituted  by  the  law  of  July  11, 
1868,  is  authorized  to  enter  into,  with  the  purchaser  or  builders  of 
cheap  houses,  who  pay  off  the  price  of  their  houses  by  means  of  annual 
payments,  temporary  contracts  of  insurance,  having  for  their  purpose 
to  guarantee  on  the  death  of  the  insured  (if  it  happens  witliin  the 
period),  the  paying  of  the  annual  payments  remaining  due. 

The  maximum  amount  of  the  capital  assured  must  not  exceed  the 
sum  deduced  from  the  rate  of  capitalization  of  4.27  per  cent  applied  to 
the  net  income  stated  in  article  5. 

Every  signer  of  an  application  for  insurance  made  under  the  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  first  paragraph  of  the  present  article  must  reply  to  the 
questions  and  submit  to  the  medical  examination  which  shall  be  pre¬ 
scribed  by  the  policies.  In  case  of  rejection  of  the  application  no 
reason  need  be  assigned.  The  insurance  goes  into  effect  with  the  sign¬ 
ing  of  the  policy,  notwithstanding  all  clauses  to  the  contrary. 

The  sum  assured  will  be,  in  the  case  of  the  present  article,  transfer¬ 
able  in  totality,  under  the  conditions  fixed  by  policies. 


CHAPTER  YII. - INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  155 


The  duration  of  tlie  contract  shall  be  fixed  in  such  a  manner  as  not 
to  carry  over  any  final  payment  of  premium  beyond  the  age  of  05  years. 

Art.  8.  [Provides  for  maintaining  the  property  undivided  and  for 
the  use  of  the  wife  and  children  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  head  of  the 
family  owning  under  conditions  of  the  present  law.] 

Art.  9.  [Provides  for  certain  exemptions  from  taxation.] 

Art.  10.  [Prescribes  certain  conditions  and  formalities  of  sale  and 
payment.] 

Arts.  11  and  12.  [Provide  for  the  exemption  of  companies  from  stamp 
tax  and  registration  fees  if  their  by-laws  limit  dividends  and  they  com¬ 
ply  with  certain  other  conditions.] 

Art.  13.  [Provides  for  exemption  from  license  fees  ami  income  tax 
under  certain  conditions.  Extends  benefits  of  law  to  companies  already 
formed,  under  certain  conditions.] 

Art.  14.  There  shall  be  established  in  connection  with  the  ministry 
of  commerce  and  industry  a  superior  council  on  cheap  dwellings,  to 
which  all  the  regulations  to  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  present 
law,  and  in  general  all  questions  concerning  cheap  dwellings  shall  be 
submitted. 

The  local  committees  shall  address  to  the  ministry  each  year,  in  Jan¬ 
uary,  a  detailed  report  of  their  work.  The  superior  council  shall  give 
a  resume  with  remarks  in  a  general  report  addressed  to  the  president 
of  the  republic. 

Art.  15.  A  rule  of  public  administration  shall  determine. the  proper 
measures  to  insure  the  application  of  the  preceding  prescriptions,  and 
especially:  (1)  Organization  and  duties  of  the  superior  council  of  cheap 
dwellings  and  of  local  committees;  (2)  the  dispositions  which  the  by-laws 
of  building  and  loan  companies  should  contain  in  order  that  these  com¬ 
panies  may  receive  the  advantages  of  the  law;  (3)  the  conditions  under 
which  the  life  insurance  fund  should  issue  temporary  insurance;  (4)  the 
procedure  to  be  followed  iu  the  application  of  article  8. 

AUSTRIA. 

The  Austrian  law  of  February  9,  1892,  aims  to  encourage  the  pro¬ 
vision  of  cheap  and  healthy  homes  for  worki  ngmen.  Special  remission 
of  taxation  in  favor  of  this  class  of  dwellings  is  the  main  feature  of  the 
new  enactment.  The  exemption,  except  in  cases  of  tenements  where 
the  floors  are  below  the  level  of  the  street,  may  be  enjoyed  for  twenty- 
four  years  after  completion,  provided:  (a)  That  the  floor  space  of 
single-room  tenements  be  not  less  than  15  square  meters  (161.46  square 
feet)  nor  more  than  30  square  meters  (322.92  square  feet),  and  of  larger 
tenements  not  less  than  40  square  meters  (430.55  square  feet)  nor  more 
than  75  square  meters  (807.29  square  feet);  ( b )  that  the  annual  rental 
per  square  meter  (10.76  square  feet)  of  habitable  floor  space  be  not  more 
than  1  florin  75  kreutzers  (about  59  cents)  in  Vienna,  1  florin  45  kreutzers 
(about  49  cents)  in  other  cities  of  10,000  inhabitants  and  upward,  and 
80  kreutzers  (about  27  cents)  in  all  other  localities;  ( c )  that  the  build¬ 
ings  be  let  exclusively  for  laborers’  dwellings ;  and  ( d )  that  the  buildings 
do  not  pass  otherwise  than  by  inheritance  into  the  hands  of  persons 
who  would  have  been  ineligible  to  the  exemption  had  they  built  them 
themselves. 


156  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Parties  authorized  to  erect  such  dwellings  are:  (a)  Communes,  socie¬ 
ties  of  public  utility,  and  organizations  for  promoting  the  welfare  of 
workingmen;  (b)  workingmen’s  cooperative  societies;  and  (c)  employers 
for  their  workmen. 

The  law  is  experimental,  exemption  privileges  being  offered  only  on 
bouses  constructed  within  ten  years  from  the  date  of  its  enactment. 

'  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

State  intervention  in  the  housing  of  labor  in  England  goes  back  more 
than  forty  years.  Under  the  influence  of  Lord  Shaftesbury,  a  philan¬ 
thropist,  the  enactment  of  1851,  which  was  especially  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  working  people,  was  passed.  The  act  has  remained  a  dead 
letter,  never  having  been  utilized.  Since  that  time  a  series  of  measures 
has  been  placed  on  the  English  statute  books,  so  that  to-day  corpora¬ 
tions  are  authorized,  indeed  compelled,  to  provide  accommodation  where 
expropriations  have  taken  place  for  at  least  one-half  of  the  persons 
dispossessed.  An  attempt,  however,  is  always  made  to  dispose  of  prop¬ 
erty  to  private  individuals,  under  special  restrictions  as  to  the  character 
of  construction  and  the  rents  to  be  charged.  Builders  are  not  anxious 
to  acquire  this  class  of  property,  and  so  it  usually  happens  that  corpo¬ 
rations  are  compelled  to  build  and  become  landlords. 

The  principal  statutes  authorizing  public  authorities  to  directly  inter¬ 
est  themselves  in  the  housing  of  the  masses  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  laboring  classes  lodging  houses  act ,  1851. — This  act  permitted 
certain  populous  local  divisions  in  England  to  raise  money  by  mortgage 
on  the  rates  for  the  purpose  of  providing  lodging  houses  for  the  work¬ 
ing  classes,  the  houses  to  be  regulated  by  commissioners  appointed 
under  the  act.  Tenement  lodging  houses,  not  common  lodging  houses, 
were  referred  to  in  this  act. 

2.  The  laboring  classes  dicelling  houses  act ,  1866. — This  statute  author¬ 
izes  the  public  works  loan  commissioners  to  make  advances  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  assisting  in  the  purchase  of  land  and  buildings,  or  in  the  erec¬ 
tion,  alteration,  and  adaptation  of  buildings  to  be  used  as  dwellings 
for  the  laboring  classes.  The  effect  of  this  act  is  to  authorize  the  coun¬ 
cil  to  erect  dwellings  for  the  laboring  classes.  Under  this  enactment, 
for  example,  the  city  of  Liverpool  erected  the  Saint  Martin’s  cottages, 
which  are  mentioned  in  Chapter  IX. 

3.  The  artisans'  and  laborers'  dwellings  improvement  act ,  1875. — This 
act  applies  to  the  city  of  London,  the  metropolis  exclusive  of  the  city  of 
London,  and  urban  districts  of  25,000  population  or  over.  It  provides 
for  clearing  “unhealthy  areas”  and  the  rearrangement  and  reconstruc¬ 
tion  of  streets  and  houses  within  such  areas.  The  scheme  must  have  the 
approval  of  the  local  government  board,  and  must  provide  for  as  many 
persons  of  the  working  classes  as  maybe  displaced.  It  was  under  this 
act  that  the  Victoria  Square  artisans’  and  laborers’  dwellings  and  the 
Juvenal  laborers’  dwellings  referred  to  in  Chapter  IX  were  built. 


CHAPTER  VII. — INTERVENTION  OF  PUBLIC  BODIES.  157 


4.  The  municipal  corporations  act ,  1882. — Under  this  law  corporations 
are  authorized,  with  the  approval  of  the  treasury,  to  make  grants  or 
leases  for  terms  not  exceeding  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years  of 
any  land  belonging  to  them  for  the  erection  of  workingmen’s  dwell¬ 
ings.  The  corporation  is  allowed  to  improve  this  land  by  making 
roads,  drains,  walls,  and  fences  at  such  an  expense  as  the  treasury  may 
approve. 

The  corporations  are  empowered  to  issue,  in  any  grant  or  lease  of  the 
land,  provisions  binding  the  grantee  or  lessee  to  build  in  a  prescribed 
manner,  to  repair  and  maintain  the  buildings,  and  they  may  prohibit 
any  division  of  the  site  of  the  buildings  or  any  addition  to  or  altera¬ 
tion  in  their  character  without  their  consent.  The  cost  incurred  by  the 
corporation  in  carrying  into  execution  this  act  is  to  be  defrayed  out  of 
the  borough  fund  or  borough  rate  or  by  money  borrowed. 

5.  The  housing  of  the  working  classes  act,  1890. — This  enactment  is 
a  modification  and  consolidation  of  all  previous  enactments.  Large 
insanitary  areas  may  be  more  effectively  dealt  with,  aud,  as  compared 
with  previous  practice,  may  be  more  economically  acquired.  Fifty  per 
cent  of  the  dispossessed  must  be  provided  for  on  the  same  site  or  in 
the  neighborhood  by  the  party  displacing  them. 

England  is  remarkable  for  the  part  which  municipalities  have  played 
in  the  housing  question.  In  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Huddersfield,  Bir¬ 
mingham,  and  London  buildings  for  working  people  have  been  erected 
and  are  still  owned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  The  results 
accruing  from  municipal  ownership  in  most  cases  are  shown  in  Chap¬ 
ters  IX,  X,  and  XI,  where  details  of  the  enterprises  appear.  The 
corporation  of  Manchester,  so  writes  Mr.  Henry  Simon  under  date  of 
April  2,  1894,  is  constructing  a  building,  regardless  of  cost,  for  labor¬ 
ers’  dwellings  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  remodeled  property  of  the 
Manchester  dwellings  company.  Dr.  Alfred  Hill,  medical  officer  of 
health  in  Birmingham,  in  1890  said  that  the  council  had  then  decided 
to  erect  twenty-two  model  workingmen’s  dwellings,  more  in  the  fulfill¬ 
ment  of  a  promise  than  from  any  actual  need  of  houses.  Financially 
it  is  not  expected  that  they  will  prove  a  success.  In  Glasgow  the 
larger  part  of  the  housing  facilities  furnished  by  the  corporation  are 
utilized  by  artisans;  in  Liverpool  nearly  one-third  of  the  corporation 
tenements  are  occupied  by  the  same  class.  The  laboring  element 
which  most  needs  help  has  not  received  from  municipalities  anywhere 
the  attention  which  one  would  naturally  expect. 

Lord  Shaftesbury  stated  to  the  English  royal  commission  that  it  was 
a  very  difficult  thing  in  London  to  procure  sites  for  building  model 
dwellings.  There  was  often  an  unwillingness  to  sell  land  for  the  pur¬ 
pose.  He  suggested  that  Parliament  should  have  the  right  to  con¬ 
demn  land  for  this  purpose  on  the  ground  that  the  work  was  one  of 
public  utility. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


RENT  COLLECTING  AND  OTHER  AGENCIES  FOR 
IMPROVING  THE  HOUSING  OF  THE  POOR, 


159 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


RENT  COLLECTING  AND  OTHER  AGENCIES  FOR  IMPROVING  THE 

HOUSING  OF  THE  POOR. 

The  inhabitants  and  their  surroundings  must  be  improved  together. 
This  is  the  principle  upon  which  Miss  Octavia  Mill  proceeds,  and  her 
successful  organization  and  prosecution  of  rent  collection,  combining 
friendly  intercourse  and  helpful  relations  with  tenants,  have  given  her 
world-wide  renown.  Miss  Hill  has  happily  combined  the  functions  of 
the  landlord  and  the  friendly  visitor.  Promptness  and  regularity  in  the 
payment  of  rent  are  placed  side  by  side  with  cleanliness,  ventilation, 
and  good  order.  All  these  things  are  shown  to  depend  largely  upon 
tenants  themselves,  and  so  amelioration  is  secured  through  self-help. 
Miss  Hill’s  work  is  especially  successful  with  the  lower  element. 

She  believes  that  the  destructive  and  criminal  classes  can  not  be 
dealt  with  by  any  existing  society  or  any  building  corporation,  because 
the  difficulty  with  these  people  is  not  financial  but  moral.  They  must 
be  trained.  That  is  what  her  system  does,  and  there  is  no  other  method. 
The  only  way  to  deal  with  such  people  is  to  make  goodness  profitable.  It 
is  not  a  question  of  class,  but  of  character.  It  is  a  question  of  personal 
influence,  and  the  landlord  or  his  representative  is  the  one  who  alone 
can  wield  it.  Miss  Hill’s  statements  are  so  important  that  extended 
mention  of  her  methods  of  work  is  herewith  presented.  She  insists 
that  moral  reformation  is  the  only  thing  that  can  deal  satisfactorily 
with  the  destructive  class.  If  people  will  buy  houses  for  the  sake  of 
managing  them  then  they  can  get  a  hold  upon  such  persons.  That  can 
not  be  done  by  a  society.  The  management  depends  very  much  on 
judgment  of  character.  You  must  notice  when  a  man  is  doing  better 
and  when  he  is  not,  a  fact  which  you  can  not  bring  up  before  a  commit¬ 
tee  and  prove  it.  Thus  men  must  be  held  and  at  the  same  time  a  plan 
devised  to  gradually  make  them  feel  the  benefit  of  the  care  that  is  being 
exercised  over  them.  When  old  houses  are  bought  a  few  improvements 
are  made  at  once,  such  as  putting  the  water  supply  and  the  roofs  in 
order,  but  other  improvements  are  added  in  proportion  as  the  tenants’ 
own  care  allows,  and  they  become  more  capable  of  valuing  and  not 
abusing  them. 

Voluntary  workers  are  a  necessity.  They  are  better  than  paid  work¬ 
ers,  and  can  be  had  in  sufficient  numbers.  Miss  Hill  selects  and  trains 
her  assistants.  She  has  paid  workers  only  during  July  and  August, 
when  many  of  the  volunteers  are  away  on  their  holidays.  The  ordinary 
system  of  collection  is  as  follows:  A  man  goes  around  on  Monday  morn¬ 
ing  and  asks  for  the  rents  that  are  due  and  forthcoming.  A  certain 
H.  Ex.  354 - 11  161 


162  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


proportion  of  the  rents  are  brought  by  the  honest,  sober,  and  industri¬ 
ous  element,  a  proportion  which  just  enables  the  man  to  carry  on  the 
house  or  to  make  what  percentage  he  requires.  The  bad,  destructive 
tenant  does  not  pay,  and  therefore  the  good  and  honest  pay  for  him. 
Miss  Hill’s  method  exactly  reverses  this.  She  stimulates  hope  and 
energy  by  a  most  elaborate  system  of  detailed  work,  enabling  tenants 
to  profit  by  their  own  care.  In  the  worst  courts  she  makes  a  certain 
allowance  in  every  house  for  repairs,  and  then  says  to  the  inhabitants: 
“Now,  if  this  is  not  spent  in  destruction  it  can  be  spent  in  improving 
your  habitation.”  They  thus  choose  what  improvements  shall  be  added, 

and  gradually  the  condition  of  the  house  is  improved. 

» 

Individual  action  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  the  very  poor  and 
destructive  classes.  Companies  will  not  receive  them  because  it  does 
not  pay  to  do  so,  but  Miss  Hill  acquires  houses  in  which  they  already 
reside,  either  through  purchase  or  control,  and  then  tells  the  tenants 
that  they  must  either  improve  or  leave.  She  says  that  this  is  generally 
effective,  and  that  in  one  purchase  involving  thirty-two  houses  it  was 
necessary  to  turn  out  the  residents  of  only  two  of  them.  The  place 
has  been  quite  orderly  for  twelve  years.  Miss  Hill’s  method  is  to  pro¬ 
ceed  slowly.  Tenements  are  purchased  which  are  overcrowded.  For 
a  few  weeks  things  are  allowed  to  go  on  in  this  way  and  then  gradually 
the  tenants  are  moved  into  larger  rooms,  or  compelled  to  take  additional 
space.  Miss  Hill  says  she  has  numbers  of  drunkards.  If  she  thinks 
they  will  be  improved  she  keeps  them.  To  retain  them  or  not  is  purely 
a  question  of  discretion.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  far-reaching  despotism ; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  exercised  with  the  view  of  bring¬ 
ing  out  the  latent  powers  of  the  people  and  trying  to  make  them  feel 
responsible  for  themselves  within  certain  limits.  Almost  the  only  rule 
that  Miss  Hill  insists  on  is  that  no  lodgers  shall  be  allowed  to  room 
with  the  family.  This  is  absolute,  except  in  the  case,  perhaps,  of  an  old 
woman  who  is  permitted  to  take  in  another  one.  She  says  there  is  a 
danger,  in  every  large  system  of  volunteers,  of  crotchets,  caprices,  and 
fashionable  follies  getting  hold  of  people.  She  says,  however,  that 
fashionable  people  are  soon  gotten  rid  of;  they  will  not  work.  The 
prime  requisite  among  workers  is  that  they  possess  tact.  The  ideal  is 
a  combination  of  interest  in  the  people  with  a  certain  amount  of  busi¬ 
ness  training. 

Miss  Hill  says  she  never  found  any  trouble  in  securing  capital;  that 
her  work  has  increased  in  a  geometrical  rather  than  an  arithmetrical 
ratio,  and  that  since  she  has  decentralized  it,  it  has  increased  from  every 
center.  Miss  Hill  charges  5  per  cent  for  collection  of  rents.  This  goes 
to  the  fund  for  training  workers;  all  of  it  is  thus  distributed.  There 
are  very  few  arrears  in  property  managed  by  Miss  Hill  and  her  assist¬ 
ants.  In  taking  a  house  where  there  are  arrears  the  plan  is  to  take  those 
tenants  who  pay  promptly  and  inform  them  that  they  will  have  a  bonus 
of  so  much  per  week  so  long  as  they  pay  regularly;  then  those  behind 


CHAPTER  VIII. - RENT  COLLECTING. 


163 


are  told  that  they  will  have  the  same  bonus  if  they  pay  regularly,  and 
that  the  bonus  is  to  go  in  liquidation  of  their  arrearages.  This  works 
well.  Repairs  are  made  gradually  so  that  as  little  inconvenience  as 
possible  may  be  caused.  Drainage  and  water  supply  are  put  in  with¬ 
out  removing  the  inhabitants,  but  when  internal  painting  is  done  they 
have  to  be  removed  temporarily.  An  arrangement  is  made  with  every 
tenant  not  in  arrears  to  have  some  improvements  made  in  his  apart¬ 
ments.  Frequently  he  executes  this  himself  on  Saturday  afternoons. 

Whenever  the  management  of  property  belonging  to  private  parties 
is  taken,  an  amount  equal  to  5  per  cent  income  on  the  property  is  paid 
to  the  owners.  All  that  remains  after  paying  taxes,  insurance,  and 
the  contribution  to  the  redemption  fund  goes  to  repairs  and  improve¬ 
ments.  Arrearages  in  rent  are  avoided  by  prompt  action.  Eviction  is 
used  as  a  last  resort.  Miss  Hill  keeps  a  separate  cashbook  and  ledger 
for  each  block  of  buildings  or  group  of  houses.  These  are  audited 
every  six  months,  and  a  copy  of  the  report  is  sent  to  each  owner  pri¬ 
vately.  Returns  may  differ  somewhat,  but  never  more  than  5  per  cent 
has  been  paid,  everything  else  going  for  improvements.  In  only  two 
cases  have  returns  fallen  below  5  per  cent. 

Miss  Hill  has  under  her  personal  direction  from  forty  to  fifty  helpers, 
trained  and  untrained.  She  works  now  only  in  Deptford,  Southwark, 
and  Marylebone.  The  other  sections  of  London  have  been  handed  over 
to  former  helpers,  conspicuous  among  whom  are  Miss  Cons  and  Mrs. 
Reid;  also  Toynbee  Hall,  as  well  as  other  college  settlements.  Miss 
Hill  is  averse  to  giving  statistics  of  the  value  of  property  under  her 
control,  the  amount  of  rentals  received,  and  the  number  of  families' 
visited,  since  she  deprecates  publicity.  Her  belief  is  that  if  matters 
get  talked  about  too  much  the  people  with  whom  she  deals  will  read  of 
it  in  the  newspapers  and  imagine  that  they  are  the  victims  of  some 
charity  scheme.  They  would  deeply  resent  this,  and  it  would  result 
in  her  losing  her  hold  upon  them.  Advices,  however,  indicate  that  in 
1887  Miss  Hill  and  her  friends  had  5,000  dwellings  in  their  charge. 
She  believes  that  there  is  not  the  same  scope  now  for  her  work  as  for¬ 
merly,  the  attitude  of  the  people  being  much  more  independent. 
Again,  there  are  many  more  model  tenement  buildings  than  there  used 
to  be,  and  in  these  tenants  have  to  submit  to  authority  and  obey 
regulations. 

There  are  abundant  testimonies  to  the  efficiency  of  rent  collecting  as 
practiced  by  Miss  Hill.  Her  system  has  been  adopted  with  uniform 
success  in  many  large  cities  in  Europe  and  to  a  smaller  extent  in  this 
country.  In  other  cases  ladies  have  assumed  the  management  of  the 
model  buildings  and  employed  others  to  attend  to  the  business  of 
receiving  rents.  The  moral  influence  of  Miss  Hill’s  system  has  been  to 
admit  women  to  a  gi^ater  extent  into  the  management  of  housing  com¬ 
panies,  a  practice  which  has  undoubted  advantages.  Several  of  the 
large  London  dwellings  companies  acknowledge  that  their  success, 


164  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


financially  and  morally,  only  began  with  the  introduction  of  rent  col¬ 
lecting  through  lady  volunteers.  An  organization  known  as  the  Tene¬ 
ment  Dwellings  Company  has  made  a  practice  of  buying  houses,  fitting 
them  up,  and  turning  them  over  to  lady  rent  collectors. 

A  narrative  of  the  circumstances  which  led  Miss  Hill  to  commence  her 
work  may  not  be  without  interest.  One  day,  while  attending  a  sewing 
reunion  or  some  other  church  meeting,  her  sympathy  was  aroused  in 
hearing  about  the  woes  of  a  certain  woman.  Impulsively  she  exclaimed : 
“  I  wish  I  had  some  houses  to  look  after !  ”  “  Do  you,  though  ?  Are  you 
in  earnest ?”  responded  many  of  her  friends.  Shortly  after,  when  din¬ 
ing  with  John  Buskin,  she  repeated  the  incident.  He  said:  “  Is  it  money 
or  time  you  need?”  She  responded,  “principally  time.”  Whereon  he 
replied  that  her  case  was  hopeless.  Buskin  ultimately  said:  “Go  to  my 
lawyer  and  have  him  buy  three  houses.  They  shall  be  in  your  hands. 
You  can  carry  out  your  theories  of  visiting  and  rent  collecting.  If  the 
money  is  lost,  no  matter.  If  you  succeed,  more  will  be  forthcoming.” 
At  this  time  Miss  Hill  did  not  think  much  of  the  financial  and  practi¬ 
cal  sides  of  the  work,  whereas  this  is  what  Buskin  emphasized  when 
he  said:  “If  you  can  make  it  pay  you  will  not  only  have  plenty  to  do, 
but  others  will  follow  you.”  Buskin’s  lawyer  did  not  approve  of  so 
Utopian  a  scheme  and  tried  to  delay  by  finding  objections  against  all 
property  which  Miss  Hill  suggested  as  eligible.  Upon  referring  her 
suspicions  to  Mr.  Buskin,  the  latter  authorized  her  to  employ  her  own 
solicitor.  She  did  so,  and  three  small  houses  were  speedily  found,  where 
operations  were  begun. 

Miss  Hill  has  not  confined  her  housing  activities  exclusively  to  rent 
collection.  Being  an  ardent  lover  of  small  homes  as  distinguished  from 
tenement  dwellings,  she  has  built  with  her  own  money  thirty-two  cot¬ 
tages  in  Southwark,  near  the  bridge  which  crosses  the  Thames,  which 
she  rents  at  a  remunerative  figure,  receiving  annually  from  4  to  5  per 
cent  dividend.  The  cottages  are  small  but  prettily  disposed,  with  gar¬ 
dens  in  front.  There  is  a  large  open  space  opposite  where  she  has 
erected  a  hall  for  evening  recreation,  a  gallery  where  women  may  sew 
and  children  play  in  rainy  weather,  and  a  room  in  which  men  may 
smoke  and  enjoy  social  intercourse. 

Miss  Hill’s  rent  collecting  scheme  occupies  a  significant  place  in  the 
housing  problem.  It  deals  with  the  lower  element,  with  which  the 
greatest  difficulties  have  been  found.  The  experience  of  a  landlord  in 
Mulberry  bend,  in  New  York  city,  demonstrates  that  even  the  worst 
persons,  with  careful  watching,  can  be  made  good  tenants.  The  suc¬ 
cess  which  has  attended  Miss  Hill’s  efforts  furnishes  hope,  if  not  cer¬ 
tainty,  that  practically  all  but  social  incorrigibles  may  come  within  the 
purview  of  remunerative  effort. 

Mention  has  just  been  made  of  the  cooperation  in  this  phase  of  social 
work  by  London  college  settlements.  Everywhere  similar  organiza¬ 
tions  ought  to  fall  into  line. 


CHAPTER  VIII. - RENT  COLLECTING. 


165 


The  Glasgow  Presbytery  Commission,  in  their  report  in  1S91,  speak¬ 
ing  of  the  formation  of  a  corporation  to  purchase  and  rent  renovated 
slum  property,  and  the  rightful  relation  thereto  of  the  church,  say  they 
“can  not  too  strongly  enforce  their  opinion  that  no  scheme  for  providing 
better  houses  for  the  poor  can  either  be  remunerative  or  of  substantial 
service  unless  combined  with  successful  efforts  to  improve  their  habits 
and  elevate  their  social  life.  An  association  formed  for  the  purchase 
and  reconstruction  of  old  tenements  would  deal  resolutely  with  the 
habits  of  the  tenants.  No  investment  of  this  kind  will  be  remunerative 
or  of  the  smallest  value  unless  the  people  who  occupy  these  houses  are 
persuaded  or  compelled  to  live  clean  and  wholesome  lives.  *  *  *  It 

is  the  function  of  the  corporation  to  insist  that  all  houses  shall  be  made 
habitable  and  provided  with  all  conveniences  necessary  for  decency. 
It  is  essentially  the  function  of  the  Christian  church  to  organize  such 
agencies  and  to  bring  to  bear  such  influences  as  shall  move  the  poor  to 
live  decent  and  clean  lives  in  the  decent  and  clean  houses  provided  for 
them.  The  work  of  the  corporation  and  the  work  of  the  church  must 
go  hand  in  hand.” 

The  Edinburgh  Social  Union  conducts  its  work  upon  a  commercial 
basis.  Its  aim  is  to  bring  together  all  who  feel  that  the  miseries  of 
the  poor  arise,  in  large  measure,  from  want  of  sympathy  and  fellowship 
between  different  classes,  and  that  philanthropic  efforts  to  remedy  the 
evil  should  apply  those  methods  which  economic  science  suggests  as 
tending  most  permanently  to  the  mental  and  moral  development  of  the 
community.  The  members  of  this  society  believe  that  the  immediate 
question  to  face  is  how  to  make  the  best  of  present  conditions,  how 
to  raise  the  standard  of  comfort  without  waiting  for  the  operation  of 
legislative  changes.  They  recognize,  moreover,  the  chief  material 
hindrances  to  the  well-being  of  the  poor  in  their  unwholesome  dwell¬ 
ings,  the  discomforts,  and  the  lack  of  healthy  enjoyments,  and  they 
purpose  beginning  their  crusade  against  intemperance  and  other  such 
evils  by  providing  opportunities  to  cultivate  higher  tastes  and  pleas¬ 
ures.  Practical  training  in  some  of  the  easier  branches  of  the  decora¬ 
tive  and  industrial  arts  is  offered  by  the  union.  There  are  classes  in 
wood  carving,  modeling,  joinery,  bookbinding,  etc.  The  union  also 
maintains  means  for  recreation,  evening  calls,  and  entertainments. 
Its  great  work,  however,  is  in  connection  with  the  care  and  manage¬ 
ment  of  houses,  which  is  conducted  on  the  following  lines: 

1.  Each  property  is  bought  in  the  name  of  the  owner,  who  takes  the 
entire  risk,  after  getting  the  report  of  the  architect  and  a  careful  state¬ 
ment  from  the  superintendents  as  to  rental  and  probable  expenses. 

2.  Payment  of  rent  is  strictly  enforced,  by  which  means  a  more  reg¬ 
ular  return  is  obtained  on  the  capital  invested,  and  the  injustice  of 
mailing  the  thrifty  suffer  for  the  thriftless  is  avoided. 

3.  When  there  is  a  surplus  of  rent  beyond  what  is  needed  for  work¬ 
ing  expenses  and  to  pay  5  per  cent  interest  on  the  capital,  it  is 


166  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OP  LABOR. 

expended  on  the  property  or  retained  to  be  available  when  required 
for  that  purpose. 

4.  Improvements  are  carried  out  gradually  as  they  come  to  be  appre¬ 
ciated,  and  the  tenants  themselves  are,  as  far  as  possible,  employed  in 
the  work. 

5.  Rents  are  collected  weekly  by  ladies  and  gentlemen  who  undertake 
this  task  as  a  means  of  gaining  influence  among  the  tenants,  and  help¬ 
ing  them  with  their  counsel  and  sympathy. 

6.  The  principle  is  maintained  throughout  of  bettering  the  condition 
of  the  poor,  not  by  lowering  their  expenditure  on  rent,  which  would 
merely  tend  to  depress  the  rate  of  wages,  but  by  giving  them  greater 
value  for  their  money,  and  thus  extending  to  them  higher  standards 
of  comfort. 

Lady  rent  collectors  have  taken  charge,  and  have,  in  addition  to 
enforcing  rules  and  discipline,  taken  an  interest  in  tenants.  When  the 
union  commenced  its  work,  in  1885,  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that 
money  could  be  obtained  to  purchase  and  improve  condemned  property. 
Row  it  frequently  has  to  refuse  proposed  loans  of  money.  There  is  a 
similar  society  in  Glasgow,  with  a  large  capital  stock.  Mr.  John  Cooper, 
city  engineer  of  Edinburgh,  referring  in  an  official  report  to  the  local 
union,  says  the  work  of  this  association  appears  to  be  conducted  on 
remarkably  sound  and  healthy  principles,  the  aim  being  to  avoid  any 
pauperizing  tendency,  and  rather  to  create  and  foster  habits  of  cleanli¬ 
ness,  sobriety,  self-respect,  and  self-dependence.  It  has  supplied  at  a 
serious  crisis  in  the  condition  of  the  slums  the  requisite  elements  for 
partial  arrestment  of  the  lapsing  process,  and  has  laid  the  foundations 
for  an  upward  lift  to  a  section  of  our  lapsed  masses.  Mr.  Cooper 
further  states  that  the  grand  remedy  will  be  either  that  such  opera¬ 
tions  as  those  of  the  union  be  increased  and  extended  or  that  a  cheaper 
class  of  dwellings,  suitable  for  the  very  poor,  be  provided  with  ade¬ 
quate  light,  air,  space,  modern  sanitary  conveniences,  etc.,  independent 
accesses,  and  efficient  means  of  isolation,  all  of  which  will  tend  to 
improved  habits  and  tone  among  occupants. 

The  housing  work  of  the  Edinburgh  Social  Union  began  in  November, 
1885.  At  the  close  of  the  first  year  three  properties  were  under  its 
care;  at  the  end  of  the  second  year  it  managed  eight  properties,  afford¬ 
ing  accommodation  to  200  families,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
1893  fifteen  separate  estates  were  supervised.  Financially  all  under¬ 
takings  have  been  successful.  The  union  believes  that  from  ten  to  fif¬ 
teen  families  are  quite  as  many  as  a  single  rent  collector  ought  to  take 
in  charge.  They  have  found  that  a  conspicuous  advantage  of  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  constant  supervision  is  prevention  of  rapid  deterioration  in 
property.  Where  rent  is  collected  simply  by  an  agent,  who  never  does 
anything  unless  forced  into  it  by  tenants,  it  is  no  wonder  that  deterio¬ 
ration  occurs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rent  collector  acts  on  the  prin¬ 
ciple  that  “a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine.” 


CHAPTER  VIII. - RENT  COLLECTING. 


167 


Mrs.  McBride,  in  speaking  of  the  Edinburgh  Social  Union,  says: 

I  must  now  try  to  show  you  how  our  undertaking  lias  not  only  been 
a  success  from  a  business  point  of  view,  but  how  it  has  benefited  the 
tenants,  and  brought  comfort  into  many  a  home  where  it  was  unknown 
before.  The  best  proof  of  this  being  the  case  is  that  our  houses  never 
stand  a  day  empty — unless  we  keep  one  for  a  week  or  two  for  any  par¬ 
ticular  tenant.  A  great  worker  among  the  poor  told  me  lately  that  she 
heard  so  much  about  our  houses,  and  that  she  had  known  some  people 
wait  for  months  to  get  into  them.  No  smoky  chimneys,  no  broken  win¬ 
dows,  no  houses  without  shelves  and  presses  are  allowed;  whenever  a 
pipe  gets  out  of  order  or  anything  goes  wrong  it  is  at  once  rectified, 
adding  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  the  poor  tenant.  We  have  certain 
definite  rules  for  the  tenants  about  cleaning  their  chimneys,  washing 
the  stairs  and  passages,  etc.  I  must  say  that  it  is  very  easy  to  insist  on 
their  carrying  them  out;  all  that  is  necessary  is  that  the  rent  collectors 
should  visit  the  place  regularly,  and  see  that  it  has  been  done.  It  is 
really  quite  extraordinary  how  quickly  our  influence  becomes  noticeable 
on  the  cleanliness  of  the  houses;  a  few  words  of  reproof  where  absolutely 
necessary,  and  a  few  words  of  encouragement  where  an  effort  to  do  bet¬ 
ter  is  observable,  have  an  equally  good  effect.  It  is  only  in  our  capac¬ 
ity  of  landloids  and  rent  collectors  that  we  can  insist  on  cleanliness, 
fresh  air,  order,  etc. ;  from  a  mere  visitor  the  tenant  would  not  receive 
advice  and  reproof  in  the  same  spirit. 

The  Glasgow  Kyrle  Society  was  formed  largely  to  conduct  rent  col¬ 
lecting  on  the  plan  of  Miss  Octavia  Hill.  Ladies  visit  the  slums  once  a 
week  to  give  advice  and  aid  to  the  poor.  Many  ladies  when  absent 
from  the  city  on  vacation  return  expressly  for  these  duties.  The  profits 
of  the  society  from  rent  collecting  are  devoted  to  sanitary  improve¬ 
ments,  such  as  putting  in  water  and  perfecting  the  plumbing  arrange¬ 
ments.  The  ladies  also  furnish  and  maintain  club  rooms  for  working- 
women.  An  excursion  or  picnic  is  given  once  a  year,  for  which  each 
person  attending  is  charged  4s.  (97  cents),  the  society  making  up  the 
remainder  of  the  cost. 

The  slum  posts  of  the  Salvation  Army  ought  to  be  ment  ioned  in  this 
connection.  They  have  done  admirable  work  in  reforming  individuals 
as  well  as  localities. 

Besides  rent  collecting  agencies  and  social  unions,  there  are  organ¬ 
izations  doing  less  direct,  but  thoroughly  important,  work  toward 
improving  the  housing  of  the  poor.  The  intervention  of  the  church 
has  been  well  exemplified  in  the  investigation  carried  on  during  1890 
by  the  Glasgow  Presbytery  Commission.  The  scope  of  the  inquiry 
was  limited  to  families  whose  heads  earned  under  20s.  ($4.87)  per  week. 
The  number  of  male  adults  of  this  class  in  Glasgow  is  estimated  on 
good  authority  to  be  about  50,000.  Of  course  the  number  of  women  is 
much  larger.  The  Presbytery  acted  on  the  view  that  knowledge  of 
the  facts  was  a  necessary  preliminary  to  action.  Since  the  report  has 
been  made  a  dwellings  company,  which  has  built  model  tenements  and 
which  has  also  bought  and  renovated  slum  property,  has  been  estab¬ 
lished  and  is  doing  useful  and  remunerative  work. 

The  Central  Institute  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  Working  Peo¬ 
ple  (Central- Stelle  fur  Arbeiter-Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen)  in  Berlin  was 


168  SPECIAL  REPOET  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


organized  in  October,  1891.  The  object  was  to  bring  together  x>ersons 
from  all  parts  of  Germany  who  were  identified  in  various  ways  with 
the  work  of  improving  the  condition  of  working  people.  It  established 
a  central  repository  or  museum  for  the  various  publications  on  these 
subjects,  reports  of  philanthropic  societies,  plans  of  workingmen’s 
dwellings,  etc.  The  institute  has  an  annual  income  of  25,000  marks 
($5,950).  The  ministry  of  commerce  gives  a  yearly  subsidy  of  2,000 
marks  ($476),  and  furnishes  the  services  of  a  high  official,  Dr.  Post, 
as  supervisor.  The  first  annual  report  dealt  with  the  question  of  the 
housing  of  working  people  in  Germany. 

Perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  example  of  an  institution  of  this  sort 
is  the  French  Society  for  Promoting  Cheap  Dwellings  ( Societe  Fran- 
get  is  e  des  Habitations  a  Bon  Marclie).  The  object  of  this  society,  which 
was  founded  in  December,  1889,  and  which  has  been  recognized  to  be 
of  public  utility  by  the  French  government,  is  to  encourage  construc¬ 
tion  by  private  parties,  manufacturers,  or  by  local  companies  of  cheap 
and  healthy  dwellings,  and  also  to  assist  in  the  improvement  of  exist¬ 
ing  dwellings.  It  seeks  especially  to  facilitate  the  means  whereby 
employees,  artisans,  and  laborers  may  acquire  their  own  habitations. 
For  this  purpose  the  association  proposes  to  place  at  the  disposition 
of  private  parties  or  companies  plans,  models  of  statutes,  and  rental 
contracts,  as  well  as  all  necessary  documentary  information.  Loan¬ 
ing,  borrowing,  purchase  of  lands,  or  construction  of  houses  directly  by 
the  society  is  forbidden.  Its  methods  of  operation  are: 

1.  To  communicate  to  parties  interested  all  information  which  may 
be  demanded,  especially  the  constitution  of  existing  societies,  their 
annual  reports,  models  of  their  leases,  plans  and  sketches  of  their 
buildings,  their  financial  organization,  etc. 

2.  The  publication  of  a  bulletin  for  the  purpose  of  recording  the 
progress  made  in  reference  to  cheap  housing  in  France  and  abroad. 

3.  The  organization  of  public  meetings  with  a  view  to  popularizing 
the  ideas  of  the  association,  to  bring  about  the  amelioration  of  dwell¬ 
ings,  and  the  creation  of  local  societies  for  constructing  workingmen’s 
houses. 

4.  The  organization  of  prize  competitions  devoted  to  expositions  of 
the  best  and  most  economical  plans  or  the  best  combinations,  in  order 
to  facilitate  construction. 

5.  The  encouragement  in  every  way,  even  by  pecuniary  subsidies,  as 
far  as  the  budget  may  permit,  of  construction  or  of  sanitation  of  cheap 
dwellings,  as  well  as  the  creation  of  societies  having  this  object  in  view. 

This  society  has  effected  a  profound  awakening  of  interest  in  the 
housing  problem.  Conferences  are  held  throughout  the  large  cities  of 
France,  where  speakers  represent  the  association.  When  prizes  were 
offered  for  the  three  best  models  of  houses  for  the  Saint  Denis  com¬ 
pany,  forty  were  submitted.  Within  five  years  from  the  date  of  its 
foundation  fifteen  strong  workingmen’s  dwellings  companies  were  organ¬ 
ized  under  its  auspices. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 

MODEL  HOUSING  IN  GENERAL. 

This  chapter  and  the  two  immediately  following,  which  deal  with 
model  housing  under  different  phases,  need  but  a  brief  introduction. 
The  word  piodel  indicates  pretty  clearly  the  character  of  the  work 
which  is  aimed  at,  and  one  or  two  other  chapters,  notably  that  upon 
economic  and  ethical  aspects,  outline  some  of  the  more  useful  and 
important  results. 

In  several  parts  of  this  volume  the  testimony  of  such  experts  as 
Lord  Shaftesbury,  Miss  Octavia  Hill,  and  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  has 
been  ,  quoted,  showing  how  improved  dwellings  improve  their  inhab¬ 
itants.  There  is  one  other  authority  who  ought  to  be  mentioned  with 
those  previously  quoted — Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  ex-city  engineer  of 
Liverpool.  He  says:  “The  education  of  the  poorest  classes  to  fully 
appreciate  the  benefits  accruing  from  their  being  housed  in  healthy 
dwellings,  provided  with  all  the  requisite  sanitary  arrangements  and 
appliances  tending  to  promote  cleanly  and  tidy  habits,  can  only  be 
gradual  and  accomplished  by  successive  stages,  and  must  precede  their 
intellectual  and  moral  elevation.”  The  author  by  no  means  takes  a 
pessimist’s  view  of  this  difficulty,  which  is  too  generally  prejudged. 
Speaking  from  actual  experience  and  careful  observation,  he  believes 
that  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  the  deserving  poorest  classes  in  the 
metropolis  and  other  large  cities  would  quickly  avail  themselves  of 
better  habitations,  and  would  soon  be  brought  to  appreciate  their 
improved  surroundings,  and  have  gradually  cre.ated  in  them  a  desire 
to  maintain  their  habitations  in  a  clean  and  healthy  condition  if  such 
dwellings  were  provided  for  them  within  easy  reach  of  their  work  at  a 
rental  which  they  could  afford  to  pay. 

In  the  view  of  this  expert  it  is  lack  of  the  opportunity  to  lead  a  more 
civilized  existence  and  not  the  inclination  to  remain  as  they  are  which 
characterizes  the  situation  of  the  poorer  element  among  city  dwellers. 
The  inherent  difficulties  in  connection  with  the  provision  of  model 
housing  for  this  class,  and  the  methods  of  meeting  them,  have  been 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  economic  and  ethical  aspects.  Mr.  Duns- 
combe’s  statement  requires  emphasis  here  as  hopeful  testimony  that 
ethical  advance  may  be  expected  from  improved  living  environments. 

171 


172  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Over  one  hundred  model  enterprises  are  mentioned  in  this  and  the 
two  following  chapters.  No  census  has  been  attempted,  but  prob¬ 
ably  all  which  are  of  importance  in  the  countries  visited  have  been 
noticed.  Very  complete  schedules  of  questions  were  prepared,  calling 
for  a  great  variety  of  technical  and  financial  detail.  The  one  thing 
kept  in  view  from  the  beginning  has  been  to  make  the  present  inquiry 
of  practical  use.  Plans  and  descriptions  are  presented,  together  with 
figures,  showing  the  character  of  the  people  housed,  the  relation 
between  rents  and  incomes  among  tenants,  the  ratio  between  rents 
charged  in  these  dwellings  and  in  others  fairly  similar  in  the  same 
vicinity,  the  net  profit  from  fiscal  operations,  and  a  variety  of  other 
interesting  and  important  matter,  because  it  is  believed  that  a  stimulus 
may  be  offered  to  model  housing  activities,  and  that  the  most  practical 
mode  of  procedure  is  to  place  positive  information  at  the  disposal  of 
everyone  who  contemplates  giving  practical  attention  to  this  subject. 

This  motive  furnishes  an  explanation  for  what  might  otherwise  seem 
a  tedious  reiteration  of  detail  or  a  plethora  of  purely  statistical  fact. 
It  has  not  always  been  possible  to  verify  the  relation  existing  between 
the  rentals  charged  in  model  tenements  and  dwellings  and  those  exacted 
for  fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  The  percentages 
must  be  considered  as  approximations  and  are  so  stated  in  the  text,  and 
are  usually  based  on  the  authority  of  officials  of  the  companies,  etc., 
giving  the  information. 

These  model  enterprises  are  divided  into  three  classes,  viz:  Model 
block  buildings — that  is,  buildings  composed  of  blocks  of  houses  each 
sheltering  more  than  four  families;  model  small  houses — that  is,  houses 
built  contiguously  or  detached,  each  accommodating  from  one  to  four 
families;  and  model  lodging  houses — the  latter  term,  with  one  or  two 
exceptions,  denoting  buildings  giving  shelter,  usually  temporary,  to 
single  persons.  The  various  enterprises  are  naturally  differentiated  into 
ive  leading  groups: 

1.  Those  that  are  conducted  on  a  purely  commercial  basis. 

2.  Those  which  are  semiphilanthropic  in  aim — that  is,  where  the  com¬ 
mercial  element  is  by  no  means  lost  sight  of,  but  where  dividends  are 
limited  to  a  sum  equal  to,  or  slightly  inferior  to,  normal  commercial 
rates  on  investments  of  the  highest  class. 

3.  Philanthropic  trusts,  bequests,  and  gifts,  where  no  division  of 
profits  occur  and  where  the  income  earned  is  added  to  the  capital  in 
order  to  perpetuate  operations. 

4.  Municipal  model  enterprises,  namely,  where  municipalities  have 
built  houses  to  rent,  either  for  the  sake  of  furnishing  an  example  to 
private  enterprises  (which  has  usually  been  the  case)  or  because  there 
was  an  unwillingness  on  the  part  of  builders  to  undertake  the  housing 
of  people  displaced  from  expropriated  and  insanitary  areas. 

5.  Houses  built  by  private  employers  of  labor  for  the  benefit  of  their 
help. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


173 


Building  and  loan  associations,  properly  called,  are  omitted  from  the 
present  work,  except  in  a  few  rare  instances,  and  these  are  cases  where 
the  erection  of  model  houses  rather  than  securing  a  profit  to  the 
investors  was  the  object.  Cooperative  building  and  loan  associations 
have  had  a  remarkable  development  in  the  United  States.  The  Ninth 
Annual  Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Labor  shows  that 
5,838  exist  in  this  country,  including  more  than  1,745,725  shareholders, 
and  having  net  assets  of  $450,007,594  including  profits  of  $80,GG4,11G. 
On  the  continent  of  Europe  institutions  of  this  kind  are  not  so  popular 
as  in  England  or  the  United  States.  There  are  said  to  be  about  3,000 
of  such  institutions  in  England.  Three-fourths  of  the  associations 
reported  that  314,755  homes  had  been  acquired.  An  official  report  in 
1888  showed  that  the  English  associations  possessed  an  undistributed 
surplus  of  £2,019,695  ($9,828,845.72).  Similar  societies  exist  in  fair 
numbers  in  the  Scandinavian  countries,  and  their  growth  is  being 
encouraged  in  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France. 

Model  housing  of  working  people  on  a  large  scale  began  first  in 
England,  and  it  has  received  its  chief  development  in  that  country. 
Just  how  many  agencies  are  in  existence  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  it 
is  estimated  on  fairly  good  authority  that  model  block  buildings  in 
London  alone  are  now  housing  upward  of  150,000  people.  Nearly 
one-third  of  this  number  are  accommodated  by  the  Peabody  Donation 
Fund  and  the  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company. 

Mr.  George  E.  Arkell,  in  Charles  Booth’s  Labour  and  Life  of  the 
People  of  London,  has  classified  the  existing  block  dwellings  of  London 
into  various  categories.  One  hundred  and  fifteen  blocks,  containing 
6,859  tenements  and  sheltering37,911  people,  are  reported  as  bad  or  very 
bad  from  the  standpoint  of  light,  air,  and  sanitation;  and  3G0  blocks, 
including  28,921  tenements  and  housing  151,197  people,  are  set  down 
as  fair,  good,  or  very  good.  It  would,  therefore,  appear  that  in  round 
numbers  190,000  of  London’s  inhabitants  dwell  in  block  dwellings  of 
different  classes. 

In  a  corner  of  France  a  new  form  of  effort  was  tried  to  stay  the 
evils  of  the  factory  system.  In  1835  M.  Andrd  Koechlin  built  in  the 
neighborhood  of  his  factory  thirty-six  dwellings,  each  comprising  two 
bedrooms,  a  kitchen,  a  scullery,  and  a  cellar.  With  each  dwelling  was 
a  garden. 

He  fixed  the  rental  at  a  moderate  price.  He  made  the  condition  that 
only  a  workingman  could  rent  one  of  these  dwellings,  and  on  the  fur¬ 
ther  condition  of  cultivating  his  garden  himself,  sending  his  children 
to  school,  making  each  week  a  deposit  in  the  savings  bank,  and  paying 
3  cents  to  the  sick  fund. 

In  1850  the  French  Parliament  passed  a  law  authorizing  local  authori¬ 
ties  to  close  to  habitation  dwellings  dangerous  to  public  health,  and  in 
all  the  large  cities  there  was  a  sanitary  revival.  It  was  soon  recognized, 
however,  that  it  was  necessary  to  do  something  more  than  to  pull  down. 


174  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  government,  therefore,  came  forward,  and  in  1852  gave  the  sum  of 
10,000,000  francs  ($1,930,000)  for  the  improvement  of  workingmen’s 
dwellings  in  large  manufacturing  cities.  Part  of  this  sum  was  employed 
in  subsidies  to  companies  and  associations  having  as  their  aim  the  pro¬ 
curing  of  healthy  and  convenient  lodgings  for  working  people.  Two 
kinds  of  effort  resulted  from  these  subsidies.  One  is  typified  in  the 
so-called  Cite  Napoleon  situated  in  the  rue  Rochechouart,  Paris,  con¬ 
taining  194  dwellings  fitted  up  with  baths,  laundries,  drying  rooms, 
and  day  nurseries.  This  sort  of  dwelling,  stimulated  by  subsidies,  was 
reproduced  in  different  parts  of  France;  but  it  was  very  soon  seen  that 
the  money  given  for  these  buildings,  dubbed  by  the  populace  “bar¬ 
racks,”  was  misplaced.  People  did  not  wish  to  go  into  them.  They 
did  not  like  this  outward  and  visible  sign  of  class  distinction.  The 
inhabitants  were,  as  a  rule,  low  salaried  clerks,  old  men  with  meager 
annuities,  or  persons  of  similar  social  condition.  The  large  laboring 
element  was  not  benefited.  The  second  form  of  effort  is  that  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  work  of  the  Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse.  In  1853, 
after  having  studied  in  England  the  attempts  there  made  for  providing 
small  homes  for  workingmen,  it  was  determined  with  the  subsidy  avail¬ 
able  to  encourage  model  effort.  The  preamble  to  the  constitution  pre¬ 
sents  remarkably  enlightened  views  for  that  period.  This  document 
says : 

Convenience  and  good  order  in  the  dwelling  have  a  greater  influence 
than  one  would  suppose  at  first  sight  upon  the  morality  and  welfare  of 
a  family.  He  who  finds  the  common  home  only  a  miserable  shelter, 
dirty,  in  disorder,  and  where  one  can  breathe  only  nauseous  and  vitiated 
atmosphere,  takes  no  pleasure  in  it  and  flies  to  the  saloon,  there  to  pass 
a  large  part  of  his  leisure  hours.  So  the  interior  of  his  dwelling 
becomes  almost  strange  to  him  and  he  soon  contracts  baneful  habits, 
which  end  almost  always  in  misery.  If,  on  the  contrary,  we  can  offer 
to  these  same  men  clean  and  inviting  dwellings,  if  we  can  give  to  each 
a  little  garden  where  a  man  will  find  useful  and  agreeable  occupation 
and  where,  waiting  for  his  modest  harvest,  he  will  know  how  to  appre¬ 
ciate  it,  shall  we  not  have  solved  in  a  satisfactory  manner  one  of  the 
most  important  problems  of  social  economics?  Shall  we  not  have  con¬ 
tributed  to  bind  together  the  sacred  bonds  of  the  family  and  have 
rendered  a  veritable  service  to  our  laboring  class  and  to  society  itself? 

A  capital  of  355,000  francs  ($68,515)  was  subscribed  by  the  manu¬ 
facturers  belonging  to  the  Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse  and  the  gov¬ 
ernment  granted  a  subsidy  of  300,000  francs  ($57,900).  The  capital  was 
subscribed  on  condition  that  the  dividend  should  not  be  greater  than  4 
per  cent.  In  order  to  encourage  proprietorship  a  discrimination  was 
made  in  favor  of  those  who  wished  to  purchase;  rents  were  fixed  to  rent¬ 
paying  tenants  at  from  7  to  8  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  construction, 
whereas  the  rentals  to  purchasers  were  fixed  at  5  per  cent.  Installment- 
payments  were  so  adjusted  that  in  thirteen  years  and  five  months  the 
workingman  would  become  proprietor. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


175 


There  is  one  phase  in  connection  with  model  block  buildings  which 
needs  slight  discussion,  and  that  is  their  healthfulness.  Considerable 
controversy  on  this  subject  has  been  waged  both  pro  and  con.  All  of 
the  agencies  reporting  facts  regarding  model  block  buildings  for  this 
inquiry  offer  universal  testimony  to  the  absence  of  epidemics  during 
the  whole  period  in  which  the  buildings  have  been  in  existence.  Sir 
Sydney  Waterlow  says  of  the  buildings  of  his  company  that  diseases 
have  never  been  known  to  spread,  even  during  the  great  epidemic  of 
smallpox  in  the  seventies.  The  death  rate  from  typhoid  fever  is  an 
excellent  test  of  sanitary  condition.  In  the  buildings  belonging  to  the 
Peabody  trust  this  has  been  shown  to  be  one-half  of  the  general  rate 
for  London.  There  is  fairly  conclusive  testimony,  too,  on  the  score  of 
general  healthfulness. 

Dr.  Arthur  Newsholme,  in  an  admirable  address  before  the  Boyal 
Statistical  Society,  in  1891,  on  the  “  Vital  statistics  of  the  Peabody 
buildings  and  other  artisans’  and  laborers’  block  dwellings,”  gives  the 
result  of  a  thorough  investigation  into  the  subject.  Answering  at  the 
outset  the  objection  that  the  population  living  in  the  Peabody  build¬ 
ings  is  a  select  population,  he  shows  that,  so  far  as  age  and  sex  distri¬ 
bution  are  concerned,  they  were,  in  the  year  1889,  much  less  favorably 
constituted  than  the  population  of  London  as  a  whole.  There  was  a 
considerably  higher  proportion  per  1,000  persons  in  the  Peabody  build¬ 
ings  of  population  under  15  years  of  age  than  for  the  whole  of  London, 
whereas  the  proportion  of  persons  per  1,000  of  population  in  the  5  and 
10  year  age  periods  from  15  to  75  was  in  every  instance  save  one  in  favor 
of  the  metropolis.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  his  conclusions: 

1.  In  the  year  1889,  contrary  to  expectation,  and  notwithstanding 
the  high  birth  rate,  the  age  distribution  of  the  population  of  the  Pea¬ 
body  buildings  was  less  favorable  to  a  low  mortality  than  that  of  Lon¬ 
don  as  a  whole. 

.  2.  The  death  rate  of  the  Peabody  buildings  averaged  about  2  per 

1,000  lower  than  that  of  London  during  the  twelve  years  ending  with 
1885.  During  the  four  subsequent  years  the  death  rate  of  the  Peabody 
buildings  has  remained  about  stationary,  while  that  of  London  has 
shown  a  further  decline;  thus  making  the  metropolitan  death  rate 
approximate  more  closely  that  of  the  Peabody  buildings. 

3.  The  death  rate  at  different  groups  of  ages  is  lower  in  the  Peabody 
buildings  than  for  the  whole  of  London,  with  the  exceptions  of  the 
ages  0  to  5  and  25  to  35. 

4.  The  infantile  mortality  is  much  lower  in  the  Peabody  buildings 
than  for  all  London.  During  the  nine  years  1882  to  1890  it  averaged 
in  London  151.9,  in  the  Peabody  buildings  139.2  per  1,000  births. 

5.  The  death  rate  from  diarrhea  is  slightly  lower,  and  from  typhoid 
fever  only  half  that  of  the  whole  metropolis. 

6.  On  the  other  hand,  the  diseases  more  immediately  due  to  direct 
infection  (scarlet  fever,  diphtheria,  and  still  more,  whooping  cough  and 


% 

176  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

measles)  are  more  fatal,  and  therefore  probably  more  prevalent.  If  the 
Metropolitan  Asylums’  Board  would  admit  cases  of  measles  into  their 
hospitals  the  mortality  from  measles  might  be  very  much  reduced. 

7.  The  death  rate  from  phthisis  and  other  tubercular  diseases  is 
slightly  higher  in  the  Peabody  buildings  than  for  all  London. 

8.  Parr’s  formula  as  to  the  increased  mortality  with  increased  den¬ 
sity  of -population  has  no  application  to  the  Peabody  buildings. 

9.  The  true  density  that  should  be  considered  is  the  number  of  per¬ 
sons  to  each  room,  not  the  number  of  persons  on  a  given  acre. 

Later  statistics  than  those  which  Dr.  Uewsliolme  has  presented  are 
now  available.  The  report  of  the  trust  for  1893  shows  that  the  birth 
rate  during  that  year  was  4.1  per  1,000  above  that  of  all  London,  while 
the  infant  mortality  was  120.4  per  1,000  births,  or  37.9  below  that  of 
London.  The  total  death  rate  per  1,000  among  inhabitants  of  the  build¬ 
ings,  including  all  tenants  dying  in  hospitals,  was  17.6  per  1,000,  or  3.7 
per  1,000  below  the  average  of  the  metropolis.  Dr.  Kewsholme  espe¬ 
cially  emphasizes  that  his  statistics  may  not  be  construed  into  an  argu¬ 
ment  in  favor  of  block  dwellings.  He  says  that  they  refer  solely  to 
that  class  of  block  dwellings,  unfortunately  too  rarely  found,  where 
every  tenement  is  well  lighted  and  ventilated. 

It  is  only  fair  to  state  that  other  authorities,  notably  Dr.  Russell  of 
Glasgow,  believe  that  no  fair  comparison  can  yet  be  made,  since  the 
population  in  model  buildings  is  largely  a  select  one,  and  that  the  build¬ 
ings  themselves  are  as  yet  so  recent  that  results  have  not  had  time  to 
show  themselves. 

There  need  be  no  caviling  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  block  dwellings 
and  small  individual  homes.  Unquestionably,  where  there  is  a  possi¬ 
bility  for  both  the  latter  are  to  be  preferred.  Ro  matter  how  excellent 
the  accommodation,  no  matter  what  precautions  are  taken  to  secure  self- 
containment  and  isolation,  home  in  a  tenement  building  can  never  be 
what  it  is  where  a  single  roof  covers  a  single  family.  In  large  cities,  . 
however,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  exercise  a  choice,  especially  in  those 
localities  where  the  need  for  improved  housing  is  greatest.  The  block 
dwelling  alone  is  a  financial  possibility.  Whether  electric  transit  will 
so  change  the  topography  of  cities  that  small  houses,  or  at  best  cot¬ 
tage  flats,  will  suffice  to  afford  accommodation  for  all  classes  of  working 
people,  the  future  alone  can  disclose.  In  the  meantime,  effort  should 
be  directed  towards  promoting  model  housing  of  that  kind  which  is 
most  practicable. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


177 


UNITED  STATES. 

IMPROVED  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

This  corporation  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  successful  experiment  in  pro¬ 
viding  model  tenemehts  for  working  people  by  Mr.  Alfred  T.  White. 
Nearly  twenty  years  ago  he  made  a  private  investment  and  succeeded 
so  well  that  he  induced  other  members  of  his  own  family  to  cooperate 
in  the  work.  The  result  has  been  the  erection  of  buildings  accommo¬ 
dating  nearly  five  hundred  families,  and  the  most  satisfactory  dem¬ 
onstration  which  has  probably  yet  occurred  in  this  country  of  the 
financial  success  which  may  attend  this  form  of  philanthropy. 

The  Eiverside  buildings  are  chosen  as  the  model  for  description, 
because  they  are  the  most  recently  constructed  and  embody  more  of 
modern  improvements.  Financially,  they  have  not  been  as  successful 
as  the  Tower  buildings*,  but  the  reason  is  principally  because  they 
have  not  had  the  advantage  of  such  skillful  supervision  as  has  been 
given  the  latter.  Superintendence  in  these,  as  in  other  matters,  is 
largely  responsible  for  success  or  failure. 

The  Eiverside  buildings  front  307  feet  on  Columbia  place,  201  feet  on 
Joralemon  street,  288  feet  on  Furman  street,  or  nearly  800  feet  in  all. 
Three  sides  of  the  quadrangle  have  been  built  up,  the  fourth  remain¬ 
ing  open  toward  the  south.  The  total  superficial  area  of  the  lot  is 
60,200  square  feet,  only  one  half  of  which  has  been  built  upon.  The 
open  space  is  in  the  form  of  a  court,  bounded  on  three  sides  by  the 
rear  of  the  buildings.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  laid  out  in  grass  plots, 
intersected  by  gravel  walks.  A  generous  portion  has  been  set  aside 
as  a  playground  for  children.  A  paved  driveway  and  a  paved  walk 
completely  surround  the  court.  In  the  center  is  a  music  pavilion, 
where  a  band  of  eight  pieces  plays  two  hours  every  Saturday  afternoon 
during  the  summer  season,  at  the  expense  of  the  proprietor.  This  whole 
space  is  given  up  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  The  principal  play¬ 
ground  for  children  during  stormy  weather  is  the  verandas  and  the 
paved  cellars.  A  portion  of  the  court  only  is  used  for  drying  clothes. 
For  this  purpose  rows  of  wooden  T-shaped  supports,  with  wire 
stretchers  over  them,  are  provided. 

The  buildings  contain  six  stories  and  are  60  feet  high.  They  are  of 
brick.  The  exterior  walls  vary  from  1  to  2  feet  in  thickness.  The  roof¬ 
ing  is  of  gravel.  The  buildings  are  almost  absolutely  fireproof.  The 
staircases  are  not  only  built  of  incombustible  material,  slate  set  in  solid 
brickwork,  but  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  brick 
walls  about  a  foot  thick.  A  balcony  of  slate,  protected  by  an  iron  rail¬ 
ing,  connects  the  stairway  with  a  hall,  by  which  in  each  case  two  or 
three  dwellings  are  reached.  Most  of  the  dwellings  have,  in  addition, 
a  private  hallway,  and  while  the  apartments  themselves  and  the  halls 
are  not  fireproof,  the  balconies  and  staircases,  which  contain  nothing 
H.  Ex.  354 - 12 


178  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


inflammable,  are  easily  reached.  Fire  escapes  exist  in  the  rear  and  are 
accessible  directly  from  all  dwellings.  Iron  passageways  on  the  root 
connect  the  three  blocks.  The  means  of  escape  are  perfect  on  account 
of  the  peculiar  construction  of  the  staircases  just  referred  to. 

There  are  cellars  paved  in  cement-covered  concrete,  which  serve  as 

storerooms  for  fuel  and  other  property.  Storage  stalls  are  provided 

with  locks.  The  cellars  are  also  used  for  bath  and  boiler  rooms.  The 
*  . 
buildings  have  no  basements. 

The  dwellings  in  the  upper  stories  are  reached  by  means  of  outside 
front  balconies  leading  from  the  staircase  to  interior  hallways  about  3 
feet  wide.  The  latter  open  to  the  private  halls  of  the  individual  dwell¬ 
ings.  The  outside  balconies  are  provided  with  railings  made  of  sheet 
iron  fastened  on  wrought  iron  bars.  The  balcony  floors  are  of  slate; 
the  iuterior  hall  floors  are  of  wood.  Interior  hall  walls  are  plastered 
and  tinted.  The  plaster  on  the  walls  is  carried  down  to  the  floor  behind 
the  foot  boards,  so  that  insects  can  not  accumulate  there.  Stairs  are 
kept  clean  by  regular  employees.  The  rooms,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
open  directly  upon  either  a  private  or  common  hallway.  Each  balcony 
and  hallway  is  used  by  three  families  in  common.  There  is  no  regula¬ 
tion  against  any  of  the  families  sitting  or  standing  in  the  corridors 
so  long  as  they  do  not  block  up  the  way  or  cause  annoyance.  Loiter¬ 
ing  on  the  stairways  is  prohibited.  The  windows  on  the  ground  floors 
have  iron  railings.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors 
or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  Each  dwelling  has  through  ventilation 
from  front  to  rear,  the  three-room  apartments  by  means  of  their  own 
doors  and  windows,  and  the  two-room  apartments  through  their  win¬ 
dows  and  the  hallways.  The  doors  have  transoms.  No  further  system 
of  ventilation  seems  necessary. 

The  dwellings  are  self-contained.  Each  family  has  a  water-closet 
and  scullery  with  a  sink,  stationary  washtub,  and  ash  shoot,  occupying 
a  space  of  about  7  feet  6  inches  by  5  feet  in  an  extension  at  the  rear  and 
reached  directly  from  the  living  room  or  kitchen.  The  scullery  proper 
and  the  water-closet  each  have  separate  outside  windows.  The  average 
number  of  persons  using  a  single  closet  is  four  to  five.  Water-closets 
have  flushing  tanks  overhead  containing  about  three  gallons.  These 
are  discharged  by  pulling  a  chain.  The  system  in  use  is  known  as  the 
“Philadelphia  hopper.”  The  water  supply  is  carried  up  in  a  corner  of 
the  living  room  where  the  pipes  are  least  affected  by  cold  weather. 
The  faucet  is  in  the  scullery,  but  the  water  can  be  shut  off  by  a  stop¬ 
cock  in  the  living  room  whenever  there  is  danger  of  the  pipes  freezing. 
The  waslitubs  and  sinks  are  trapped  separately  from  the  water-closets. 
The  traps  are  ventilated  by  vent  pipes  carried  above  the  roof.  Soil 
pipes  are  open  at  the  roof  and  serve  as  rain  conductors.  They  pass 
down  along  the  back  extension  wall  and  through  the  rear  cellar  wall 
to  the  sewer,  avoiding  any  horizontal  drains  under  the  buildings.  The 
cesspools  are  all  trapped  and  there  is  no  possibility  of  escape  of  sewer 


w 

p|S| 

li 

in 

RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

Plan  No.  13  a. 


FURMAN  STREET. 

t 


COLUMBIA  PLACE, 

Upper  floors. 


RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS,  BROOKLYN, 

Plan  No.  13  b. 


NEW  YORK. 


<  -9' 3-  x  V'-r  X  £/-?'  X  /<?-3" 

<■  «  ' «>"  X  /i'-O*  ,  *■/!>'  „ 

<  J-e'  x/:«;  »-«'  » 


RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

Plan  No.  1 3  d. 


JORALEMON  STREET. 


FURMAN  STREET. 


First  floor. 

RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

Plan  No.  1  3  e. 


CHAPTER  IX. — "MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


179 


gas.  An  unlimited  quantity  of  water  is  allowed.  Washing  is  done  in 
the  sculleries,  where  tubs  are  provided.  Drying  is  done  usually  in  the 
courtyard  or  on  the  roof,  accordingly  as  the  families  live  in  the  three 
lower  or  the  three  upper  stories. 

A  cooking  range  is  not  furnished  by  the  company,  but  there  is  a  coal 
box  in  each  kitchen  which  holds  a  quarter  of  a  ton.  This  is  generally 
used  by  tenants  for  fuel  storage  instead  of  the  cellar  space,  as  it  affords 
the  advantage  of  greater  security  and  convenience,  a  fact  resulting  in 
the  purchase  of  small  quantities  of  coal  at  a  time  and  at  a  higher  price. 
There  are  dumb-waiters  for  raising  fuel  and  provisions  to  the  different 
stories.  There  are  no  garbage  receptacles ;  all  garbage  must  be  burned. 
There  is  a  closet  with  shelves  in  each  kitchen  which  serves  for  a  pantry. 
The  ash  shoots  are  1  foot  square  and  are  ventilated  from  the  roof. 
They  discharge  into  large  ash  rooms  in  the  rear  of  the  cellars,  the 
former  being  separated  from  the  latter  by  brick  walls.  The  ash  rooms 
are  accessible  only  by  doors  in  the  rear  and  are  emptied  twice  a  week. 
In  warm  weather  the  ash  shoots  are  regularly  disinfected.  No  ashes 
are  ever  exposed  on  the  driveway  or  in  the  courtyard,  being  loaded 
directly  from  the  vaults  into  the  carts. 

There  are  no  fireplaces.  Slate  slabs  are  fixed  in  the  floors  for  stoves, 
which  are  used  for  heating,  to  rest  upon.  There  are  no  heating  regis¬ 
ters.  Inside  shutters  are  found  throughout.  Gas  on  the  stairs,  in  the 
public  hallways,  bathrooms,  and  office  is  furnished  by  the  proprietor, 
but  the  tenants,  as  a  rule,  burn  oil  in  their  rooms.  Each  apartment  is 
furnished  with  a  clothespress,  having  a  shelf  and  hooks.  There  are  no 
mirrors  in  the  rooms,  except  the  property  of  tenants.  Kitchen,  sitting 
room,  and  hall  walls  are  painted;  bedroom  walls  are  calcimined.  A 
space  on  the  wall  is  painted  in  imitation  of  a  brick  fireplace.  Walls 
on  the  staircases  are  of  brick  and  painted.  Much  attention  has  been 
given  to  ornamentation,  hence  the  exterior  presents  a  very  fine  appear¬ 
ance.  This  is  best  shown  in  the  accompanying  cut  (plan  No.  13  A). 
The  brickwork  of  the  front  walls,  the  balcony  railings,  and  the  arched 
ironwork  above  the  balconies  present  a  very  pleasing  appearance. 
Floor  plans  of  the  Kiverside  buildings  are  likewise  shown  (plans  Nos. 
13  B  to  13  E). 

In  the  construction  of  these  model  tenements  four  things  were  con¬ 
sidered  essential — first,  privacy;  second,  health;  third,  safety;  fourth, 
comfort.  Domestic  privacy  seems  to  be  regarded  of  greater  impor¬ 
tance  in  American  life  than  elsewhere,  and  Mr.  White’s  buildings  have 
been  constructed  with  the  aim  of  providing  as  much  as  possible. 
Attention  to  these  four  elements  furnishes  the  secret  of  success,  and 
will  almost  guarantee  continued  occupation.  The  Kiverside  buildings 
contain  3  one-room  tenements,  91  two-room  tenements,  161  three-room 
tenements,  and  23  four-room  tenements.  There  are  2  single  stores,  4 
stores  with  1  room  attached,  and  13  stores  with  2  rooms  attached. 
There  are  also  2  stores  with  3  rooms  and  1  store  with  4  rooms.  The 


180  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

prevailing  type  of  two-room  tenements  consists  of  a  living  room  16  feet 
by  10  feet  and  a  bedroom  16  feet  by  7  feet,  exclusive  of  scullery  and 
water-closet.  The  most  general  type  of  three-room  tenements  consists 
of  a  living  room  16  feet  by  10  feet,  a  bedroom  of  the  same  size,  and  a 
parlor  15  feet  by  8  feet;  or  a  living  room  18  feet  by  10  feet,  a  bedroom 
16  feet  by  8  feet,  and  a  parlor  16  feet  by  8  feet.  In  four-room  tene¬ 
ments  the  living  room  is  practically  the  same  size,  but  the  bedrooms 
and  parlor  are  somewhat  smaller.  The  ceilings  of  the  first  floor  are  10 
feet  high,  and  in  the  succeeding  stories  8  feet  3  inches  high.  Mr. 
White  thinks  that  in  America  working  people  require  more  rooms  than 
they  do  abroad;  hence  many  families  will  crowd  their  bed  and  living 
rooms,  if  necessary,  in  order  to  have  a  parlor.  The  living  room  and 
kitchen  are  coextensive  terms. 

A  single  room  and  a  scullery  on  the  ground  floor  rent  for  $1.40  a 
week.  Two-room  tenements  rent  for  $2  to  $2.30  in  the  first  story,  $1.90 
to  $2.20  in  the  second  story,  $1.80  to  $2.10  in  the  third  story,  $1.70  to 
$2  in  the  fourth  story,  $1.60  to  $1.90  in  the  fifth  story,  and  $1.50  to 
$1.80  in  the  sixth  story  per  week.  Three-room  tenements  rent  for 
$2.60  to  $2.90  on  the  first  floor,  $2.50  to  $2.80  on  the  second  floor,  and 
thence  to  the  top,  diminishing  10  cents  per  floor.  Four-room  tenements 
rent  for  $3  to  $3.60  in  the  first  story,  $2.70  to  $3.30  in  the  second  story, 
$2.60  to  $3.20  in  the  third  story,  $2.50  to  $3.10  in  the  fourth  story, 
$2.40  to  $3  in  the  fifth  story,  and  $2.30  to  $2.90  in  the  sixth  story. 
An  average  store  with  two  rooms  rents  for  $25  per  month.  A  rebate 
amounting  to  10  cents  per  week  for  the  year  is  paid  each  May  to  all 
tenants  who  have  paid  their  rents  promptly  in  advance  during  the  pre¬ 
ceding  twelve  months.  This  has  a  good  effect  in  the  prompt  payment 
of  rent.  In  May,  1893,  an  exception  was  made  and  all  tenants  received 
the  rebate  of  10  cents  weekly,  as  an  economic  appetizer. 

Two  features  of  these  tenement  houses,  which  were  borrowed  from 
London  practice,  were  very  much  criticised  in  the  beginning  and  were 
deemed  quite  impracticable.  One  was  the  weekly  payment  of  rent,  and 
the  other  the  outside  staircase.  In  regard  to  the  former,  it  has  been 
found  that  weekly  rents  are  paid  more  promptly,  because  the  amount 
of  each  payment  is  not  so  large  and  the  money  is  not  missed  so  much. 
This  is  especially  the  case  where  wages  are  paid  every  seventh  day. 
As  regards  the  open  staircase,  no  objection  has  been  made  by  tenants. 
During  the  first  week  after  the  opening  of  the  first  building  forty 
apartments  were  filled.  The  buildings  are  intended  to  accommodate 
the  poorer  j>aid  working  people,  starting  with  those  earning  $1.25  per 
day. 

The  Riverside  buildings  were  opened  for  occupation  May,  1890.  The 
original  cost  of  the  lot  was  $81,892.15;  of  the  buildings,  $264,163.14. 
The  total  sum  received  for  rent  from  these  buildings  during  the  fiscal 
year  1893  was  $33,866.43. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


181 


A  classification  of  tenants,  by  place  of  birth  and  age,  and  number 
and  average  size  of  families,  of  the  Riverside  buildings  exhibited  the 
following  results: 

AGE  OF  TENANTS  AND  AVERAGE  SIZE  OF  FAMILY  IN  THE  RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS, 

BY  PLACE  OF  BIRTH. 


Birthplace  of  tenants. 

Number 

of 

families. 

Over  21 
years. 

Age  of 

5  to  21 
years. 

tenants. 

1  to  5 
years. 

Under  1 
year. 

Average 
siz^  of 
family. 

United  States . 

81 

17C 

67 

41 

16 

3.7 

England . 

12 

25 

18 

4 

1 

4.0 

Scotland . 

5 

10 

1 

5 

0 

3.2 

Ireland . 

69 

154 

70 

32 

9 

3.8 

Germany . 

19 

51 

14 

12 

4 

4.3 

France . 

2 

6 

1 

2 

0 

4.5 

Italy . 

2 

4 

0 

1 

0 

2.5 

Spain . 

1 

2 

0 

0 

0 

2.0 

Sweden . 

21 

49 

11 

16 

2 

3.7 

Norway . 

23 

50 

8 

8 

8 

3.2 

Denmark . 

12 

25 

9 

6 

4 

3.7 

Canada  . 

6 

14 

3 

2 

0 

3.2 

Cape  Town,  South  Africa . 

1 

1 

3 

2 

0 

6.0 

Total . 

254 

567 

205 

131 

44 

3.7 

The  total  number  of  families  was  254  and  the  total  number  of  indi¬ 
viduals  947. 

The  occupations  of  heads  of  families  in  the  Riverside  buildings  were 
as  follows: 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  THE  RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

6 

10 

Ovsterman _ _ _ 

1 

2 

1 

1 

W  ire- worker . 

1 

Engraver . 

1 

Janitor _ ............. 

1 

42 

Stenographer . 

1 

Bookkeeper . 

l 

Weighmaster . 

1 

Porters . . . 

8 

Compositors . 

3 

Baker . 

1 

Tailor . 

1 

Merchants . 

2 

Shipping  clerk . 

1 

5 

2 

Waiters . 

3 

3 

Nurse . . . 

1 

H  ousekeepers . . 

20 

1 

Molders . 

2 

3 

1 

Screw  maker . 

1 

Music  teachers . 

2 

6 

Machinist . 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Elevator  conductor . 

1 

2 

Fisherman . 

1 

Carpenters . . 

16 

1 

Lineman . 

1 

Bartenders . 

3 

1 

Steward . . . 

1 

3 

1 

Cooks . 

2 

2 

3 

Tobacconist . . . 

1 

1 

1 

Sailors . 

2 

1 

Iceman . . . 

1 

keeper . 

1 

2 

Pressman . . . 

1 

1 

4 

Barbers . 

2 

1 

Awning  maker . 

1 

3 

1 

Chair  maker . 

1 

1 

2 

Paper-bag  maker . 

1 

1 

1 

Bookbinder . . 

1 

30 

1 

1 

1 

Total . . 

254 

Printers . 

3 

1 

Lightermen . 

6 

Lawyer” . 

1 

182  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  nationalities  of  heads  of  families  in  the  Tower  buildings,  the 
second  group  of  buildings  opened  by  the  Improved  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany,  were  as  follows: 

NATIONALITY  ON  HEADS  ON  FAMILIES  IN  THE  TOWER  BUILDINGS. 


Nationality. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Nationality. 

Num¬ 

ber.. 

4 

Americans . . . 

23 

Irish . . . .... _ ...... 

23 

1 

37 

1 

Scotch . . . 

1 

2 

Swedes . 

26 

7 

English . 

3 

Total _ _ _ _ 

132 

Germans . 

8 

The  occupations  of  heads  of  families  in  these  same  buildings  were 
as  follows: 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  THE  TOWER  BUILDINGS. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

3 

4 

1 

Private  watchmen . 

2 

Blacksmiths . 

2 

Janitors  . . 

2 

11 

Inventor . 

1 

Cooper . 

1 

Photo-engraver . 

1 

Plumber . * . 

1 

Peddler . 

1 

10 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

Marble- cut  ter . . 

1 

Bricklayer . . . 

1 

16 

1 

Silver  plater . 

1 

1 

Dock  builders . 

2 

1 

6 

1 

Ei  reman . . . 

1 

6 

Truckman . 

1 

1 

2 

Engineers . 

3 

2 

1 

Painters . 

2 

5 

1 

Milkman . 

1 

1 

Manager . 

1 

stresses  . 

7 

1 

Brass  roller . 

] 

Charwoman . 

1 

2 

Gas  fitter . 

1 

No  occupation  .......... 

3 

1 

1 

Umbrella  maker . 

1 

Printer . 

1 

Total .............. 

132 

1 

Caterer . . 

1 

1 

Compositor . 

1 

Three  distinct  groups  of  buildings  are  owned  by  the  Improved 
Dwellings  Company  of  Brooklyn.  They  are  all  situated  not  far  from 
the  river  bank  and  are  extremely  convenient  of  access  from  the  ferries 
and  numerous  street  car  lines  centering  in  the  neighborhood.  These 
buildings  are  known  respectively  as  the  “Home  buildings,”  “Tower 
buildings,”  and  “Riverside  buildings.”  The  Home  buildings  were 
opened  for  habitation  in  February,  1877;  the  first  section  of  the  Tower 
buildings  was  opened  in  June,  1878;  the  Riverside  buildings  received 
tenants  for  the  first  time  in  May,  1890.  In  all  these  different  blocks 
there  are  4  one-room  tenements,  135  two-room  tenements,  308  three- 
room  tenements,  48  four-room  tenements,  1  five-room  tenement,  23 
stores  with  dwellings,  and  13  stores  without  dwellings. 

The  work  of  this  company  is  due  entirely  to  private  enterprise.  One 
can  scarcely  call  it  a  public  concern,  since  members  of  Mr.  White’s 
family  only  ar$  interested.  There  is  no  capital  stock.  The  older  build¬ 
ings  pay  10  per  cent  on  the  money  invested;  the  latest,  the  Riverside, 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS  183 

pays  only  from  5  to  6  per  cent.  The  cost  of  building  has  greatly 
increased  since  the  enterprise  was  started.  It  had  augmented  by  about 
40  per  cent  in  1S90,  when  the  Riverside  buildings  were  constructed. 
This  increased  cost  has  been  due  mainly  to  the  enhanced  price  of  labor. 
The  value  of  slate  is  about  the  same,  but  iron  and  woodwork  has 
slightly  increased;  for  brick  and  masonry  there  has  been  a  consider¬ 
able  advance,  while  plastering  costs  100  per  cent  more.  The  wages 
paid  to  bricklayers  in  1878  was  about  $2.50  per  day  of  ten  hours;  twelve 
years  later  they  were  paid  $4  per  day  of  eight  hours. 

One  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  buildings  is  set  aside 
as  a  repair  fund  during  each  fiscal  year.  The  company  is  very  liberal 
in  making  repairs,  and  finds  that  it  pays  to  be  so. 

The  general  taxes  in  1893  amounted  to  $10,403.39;  the  water  tax  to 
$2,094.07.  The  total  estimated  value  of  lands  and  buildings  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  company  is  now  $672,788.09.  The  gross  rental  during  the 
last  fiscal  year  was  $64,731.14.  There  was  very  little  loss  of  rent  from 
unoccupied  tenements,  as  they  were  rarely  empty  longer  than  it  took  to 
put  them  in  order  to  receive  new  occupants.  Rents  are  paid  weekly 
in  advance,  on  Saturday  or  Monday,  at  the  offices  of  resident  agents. 
Tenants  rarely  give  notice  of  intention  to  quit,  moving  out  whenever 
it  suits  their  convenience  to  do  so.  Arrearages  of  rent  from  three 
days  to  one  week  are  allowed.  In  the  older  groups  of  buildings  rents 
have  varied  but  little.  When  the  Riverside  buildings  were  completed 
a  higher  rent  was  charged,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  that  class  of 
people  could  not  go  beyond  the  limit  paid  in  the  other  houses,  and 
it  was  therefore  reduced  to  the  same  rate  as  in  the  older  blocks.  The 
rentals  are  about  the  same  as  those  exacted  in  other  houses  of  the 
vicinity  for  an  equal  amount  of  floor  space.  The  advantages  are  not 
in  the  rental,  but  in  superior  accommodations.  The  average  duration 
of  tenancy  was  greater  formerly  than  it  has  been  since  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  rapid  transit.  Then  only  such  people  as  coachmen  and 
servants  left  during  the  summer  time,  but  now  all  classes  seem 
to  adopt  the  custom  of  going  to  the  suburbs  for  the  summer.  The 
outward  movement  commences  in  June,  and  the  people  remain  until 
the  cold  weather  of  approaching  winter  drives  them  back.  This  move¬ 
ment  is  greater  in  the  Riverside  buildings  than  in  the  older  blocks. 
Changes  of  employment  and  deaths  also  cause  removals.  Tenants 
do  not  often  remain  longer  than  three  years. 

Tenants  are  not  permitted  by  the  regulations  to  sublet  any  part  of 
their  lodgings,  but  they  often  do  so,  claiming  that  the  boarders  are 
relatives  and  as  such  have  a  right  to  remain  in  the  family. 

The  only  form  of  application  required  of  a  prospective  tenant  is  that 
he  shall  sign  an  agreement  to  follow  the  prescribed  regulations.  There 
is  no  lease  or  formal  contract.  The  apartment  is  let  under  the  following 
conditions: 

All  rents  payable  weekly  in  advance,  on  Saturday  or  Monday,  at  the 
office  during  office  hours. 


184  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Tenants  not  paying  in  advance  will  be  notified  to  leave  at  once. 

No  tenant  is  permitted  to  underlet  any  portion  of  bis  apartments,  or 
to  take  in  lodgers. 

Tenants  are  required  to  give  immediate  notice  to  tbe  agent  of  any 
need  of  repairs,  aud  to  pay  for  such  as  may  be  due  to  tbeir  own  care¬ 
lessness. 

No  nails  to  be  driven  in  walls  or  woodwork  without  agent’s  consent. 

In  winter  wash  rooms  to  be  kept  warm  to  prevent  freezing  of  pipes. 

Halls  and  balconies  to  be  cleaned  daily  by  the  tenants  using  them. 

Tenants  are  strictly  prohibited  from  throwing  anything  out  of  the 
windows,  and  from  obstructing  the  waste  pipes  or  ash  flues. 

Only  ashes  to  be  thrown  into  ash  flues. 

All  garbage  must  be  burned. 

No  clothes  to  be  hung  out  of  windows. 

No  animals  to  be  kept  on  the  premises. 

Carpets  to  be  shaken  only  in  the  yard. 

Clothes  to  be  removed  from  lines  so  soon  as  dry.  Lines  not  to  be 
used  on  Sunday. 

Plants  must  be  watered  only  in  the  rooms. 

Before  washing  windows  notify  tenants  below. 

Children  not  allowed  on  the  roof,  nor  to  play  on  stairs  or  balconies. 

Chopping  or  sawing  wood  not  allowed  in  the  apartments  or  on  the 
roof. 

Disorderly  tenants  will  be  expelled  at  once. 

The  agent  is  required  to  enforce  all  these  regulations,  and  will  be 
immediately  discharged  if  he  neglects  to  do  so. 

Bath  tickets  may  be  had  from  the  agent. 

The  complete  management  of  the  buildings  is  in  the  hands  of  resi¬ 
dent  agents,  who  are  intelligent  and  capable  men  and  receive  good 
salaries. 

The  duties  of  the  agents  are  to  collect  rents,  employ  help,  look  after 
minor  improvements  and  repairs,  select  tenants,  etc. 

One  woman  is  employed  for  each  staircase  at  a  compensation  of  $1 
per  week.  She  washes  the  staircase  once  every  day  before  9  a.  m. 
There  are  two  watchmen  employed — one  to  light  the  staircase  and  keep 
order,  receiving  $12  per  week;  the  other,  a  special  police  officer,  on 
duty  from  7  p.  m.  to  2  a.  m.,  receiving  $7  per  week. 

As  regards  situation  of  buildings  in  reference  to  the  places  of  employ¬ 
ment  of  tenants,  it  may  be  saidfhat  the  longshoremen  and  those  work¬ 
ing  in  kindred  occupations  (who  constitute  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  tenantry)  work  from  one-half  to  one  mile  from  the  buildings.  The 
others  are  so  located  that  information  for  individual  cases  can  not  be 
given.  Some  work  in  New  York  aud  reach  their  destination  by  ferry 
and  street  railway,  or  ferry  only,  while  others  are  employed  in  Brook¬ 
lyn,  either  riding  or  walking  to  the  appropriate  locality.  The  ferry 
costs  4  or  6  cents,  and  the  street  car  10  cents  for  a  round  trip.  Those 
going  to  New  York,  however,  have  no  occasion  to  take  the  street  car 
on  the  Brooklyn  side. 

A  reading  room,  open  from  7  to  10  p.  in.,  has  been  placed  in  the  Home 
buildings.  It  is  situated  on  the  ground  floor  and  is  intended  for  the 
use  of  the  tenants  of  the  Home  and  Tower  groups,  as  well  as  the  inhab- 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


185 


itants  of  the  cottages  in  Warren  place.  A  large  table  occupies  the 
center,  containing  files  of  seven  daily  papers,  three  weekly  illustrated 
papers,  and  three  monthly  magazines.  The  bookcases  contain  334 
plainly  bound  novels,  which  may  be  taken  away  for  a  week  at  a  time. 
Periodicals  may  not  be  removed  from  the  room  unless  they  are  old. 
Only  tenants  are  admitted,  and  these  must  be  provided  with  library 
tickets,  which  are  issued  free  by  the  agent.  The  name  and  room  num¬ 
ber  of  the  occupant  is  stated  upon  the  ticket. 

Adjoining  the  reading  room  and  library  are  six  bathrooms,  also  for 
the  free  use  of  tenants.  These  are  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water. 
Tickets  must  be  obtained  in  every  case  when  a  bath  is  desired.  They 
are  issued  by  the  agents  to  tenants  only,  and  the  number  of  tickets  is 
not  limited.  Bathrooms  are  open  for  women  and  children  Tuesdays 
from  3  to  6  p.  m.  and  Saturdays  from  2  to  fi  p.  m.;  for  boys,  Saturdays 
from  9  a.  m.  to  noon,  and  from  May  1  to  October  1,  Wednesdays  from 
3  to  6  p.  m.,  in  addition;  for  men,  Saturdays  from  7.30  to  10  p. m.,  Sun¬ 
days  from  8  a.  m.  to  noon,  and  from  May  1  to  October  1,  Wednesdays 
from  7.30  to  10  p.  m.  The  boiler  heating  the  water  for  the  baths  is 
placed  in  such  a  position  that  it  heats  the  reading  room  and  bathrooms 
as  well.  A  woman  is  employed  at  a  weekly  compensation  of  $2  and 
free  apartments  ($2.10  per  week  additional)  to  manage  and  clean  the 
baths  and  reading  room.  About  $9  per  month  is  expended  for  news¬ 
papers. 

Statistics  of  the  patronage  of  reading  room  for  the  period  from 
December  3,  1892,  to  July  1, 1893,  with  the  excel) tion  of  the  month  of 
March,  1893,  appear  in  the  following  table: 

ATTENDANCE  AT  EEADING  KOOH  OF  IMPROVED  DWELLINGS  COMPANY. 


Week  beginning — 

Men. 

W  omen. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Total. 

December  3,  1892 . 

83 

5 

10 

2 

100 

December  10,  1892 . 

92 

3 

6 

1 

102 

December  17,  1892  . . 

82 

4 

4 

90 

December  25,  1892 . . . 

82 

3 

4 

89 

January  1,  1893 . 

84 

4 

7 

95 

January  8,  1893 . . 

78 

4 

9 

91 

January  15.  1893 . 

77 

4 

9 

90 

January  22,  1893 . 

81 

7 

12 

100 

J anuary  29,  1893 . . . 

72 

6 

9 

87 

February  5, 1893 . 

72 

9 

9 

90 

February  12,  1893 . . . 

73 

13 

6 

92 

February  19, 1893 . . . . 

84 

12 

4 

100 

February  26,  1893..... . 

84 

7 

‘  15 

106 

April  2,  1893 . 

80 

10 

15 

105 

April  9  1893  . 

75 

10 

17 

102 

April  16,  1893 . 

83 

7 

14 

104 

April  23,  1893 . 

72 

8 

12 

92 

April  30,  1893 . 

73 

9 

9 

1 

92 

May  7,  1893  .. 

76 

9 

14 

99 

May  14,  1893  . 

81 

8 

14 

103 

May  2i;  1893 . 

73 

6 

17 

1 

97 

May  28,  1893 . 

68 

6 

13 

87 

June  4, 1893 . 

61 

5 

11 

1 

18 

June  11, 1893 . 

59 

6 

9 

74 

June  18, 1893 . 

48 

6 

15 

69 

June  25, 1893 . 

48 

15 

63 

Total . 

1,941 

171 

279 

6 

2,397 

186  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

A  record  of  those  taking  baths  at  the  Home  buildings  during  the 
first  six  months  of  1893  has  been  kept.  For  the  women,  boys,  and  girls 
a  separation  of  the  different  nationalities  has  been  attempted.  This 
differentiation  includes  three  principal  heads,  namely,  Irish,  Scandi¬ 
navian,  and  other  nationalities.  The  figures  appear  in  the  following 
table : 

RECORD  OF  BATHS  TAKEN  AT  THE  HOME  BUILDINGS. 


Women. 

Boys. 

Girls. 

Month. 

Men. 

Irish. 

Scan¬ 

dina¬ 

vian. 

Other 

nation¬ 

alities. 

Total. 

Irish. 

Scan¬ 

dina¬ 

vian. 

Other 

nation¬ 

alities. 

Total. 

Irish. 

Scan¬ 

dina¬ 

vian. 

Other 

nation¬ 

alities. 

Total. 

January .... 
February ... 

7 

1 

1 

6 

1 

1 

16 

3 

3 

1 

] 

2 

4 

3 

3 

19 

9 

9 

1 

1 

2 

4 

15 

3 

4 

22 

May ....... . 

34 

9 

9 

8 

17 

1 

26 

34 

32 

4 

70 

58 

4 

12 

2 

18 

9 

17 

4 

30 

43 

51 

3 

97 

At  the  Riverside  buildings  baths  are  provided  and  similar  regula¬ 
tions  prevail.  The  record  of  baths  taken  at  the  Riverside  buildings 
is  as  follows: 


RECORD  OF  BATHS  TAKEN  AT  THE  RIVERSIDE  BUILDINGS. 


Month. 

Tear. 

• 

1890. 

1891. 

1892. 

1893. 

56 

6 

15 

54 

26 

33 

53 

37 

48 

96 

181 

189 

303 

342 

210 

193 

397 

398 

454 

424 

489 

322 

662 

448 

497 

407 

451 

420 

239 

93 

206 

249 

241 

149 

184 

192 

131 

67 

49 

50 

51 

56 

92 

78 

Total . . . . 

2, 200 

2,  206 

2, 601 

2,331 

It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  bathrooms  at  the  Riverside  buildings 
have  but  recently  been  opened,  and  consequently  the  figures  should 
hardly  be  taken  as  indicative  of  the  habits  of  cleanliness  among  tenants. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  inquiry  to  meritoriously  distinguish 
specific  model  enterprises.  Facts  are  allowed  to  speak  for  themselves, 
and  on  this  basis  of  judgment  full  justice  will  be  accorded  to  the 
Brooklyn  Improved  Dwellings  Company. 

ASTRAL  APARTMENTS,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 

These  buildings  are  owned  by  the  Pratt  Institute  and  are  situated 
on  Franklin,  India,  and  Java  streets,  Greenpoint,  Brooklyn.  The  com¬ 
plete  frontage  on  the  three  streets  is  410  feet  and  the  depth  100  feet. 
About  62  per  cent  of  the  ground  has  been  built  upon;  the  rest  is  open 
space  in  the  form  of  a  courtyard  paved  with  asphalt.  No  part  of  the 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


187 


court  is  covered  to  serve  as  a  recreation  ground  in  rainy  weather.  Chil¬ 
dren  are  allowed  to  play  there  except  on  Sundays.  Drying  clothes  is  also 
permitted.  The  buildings  have  six  stories  with  a  basement,  and  are  85 
feet  high.  They  are  constructed  of  briclc,  with  stone  trimmings.  Special 
care  has  been  taken  to  insure  solidity,  and  safety  in  case  of  fire.  The 
front  walls  are  2  feet  thick  and  the  other  walls  1  foot  8  inches  and  2 
feet.  The  roofing  is  of  slate,  and  the  stairways  of  bluestone  slabs 
inserted  in  brick  walls  and  provided  with  iron  railings.  Each  stair¬ 
case  extends  to  the  roof  and  is  protected  by  a  cupola  with  a  tile  roof,  in 
which  is  a  large  ventilator.  The  dumb-waiter  shafts  are  solid  mason 
work  and  go  above  the  roof,  thus  removing  perhaps  the  most  frequent 
cause  of  fire  in  apartment  houses.  Five  brick  party  walls  separate  the 
block  into  six  distinct  sections.  Foundation  walls  rest  on  a  dry  gravel 
bottom  and  are  coated  with  asphalt,  besides  having  a  bitumen  damp 
course  inserted  throughout  just  above  the  footings.  The  cellar  is  paved 
with  asphalt  and  is  used  for  storage  purposes,  each  tenant  having  a 
separate  bin.  In  addition  to  stores  the  ground  floor  contains  a  lec¬ 
ture  room,  kindergarten,  bathrooms,  library  and  reading  rooms,  and 
storage  apartments. 

Staircases  are  provided  with  low,  broad  steps.  All  turns  are  made 
at  square  platforms,  and  there  are  windows  on  every  landing.  From 
two  to  four  families  on  each  floor  use  the  same  staircase.  Loitering 
on  landings  or  in  hallways  is  not  permitted  As  the  tenements  are 
fully  self-contained,  there  is  no  occasion  to  use  the  hallway  except  as  a 
means  of  ingress  or  egress.  Apartments  are  so  arranged  that  every 
room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open 
air.  All  doors  have  transoms,  and  there  are  numerous  sashes  in  the 
partitions  to  furnish  additional  light  and  ventilation.  There  is  not  an 
airshaft  in  the  whole  block. 

A  water-closet  is  provided  for  the  sole  use  of  each  family  and  is  within 
the  buildings.  The  chain  flush  system  is  used.  As  regards  plumbing,  the 
heaviest  materials,  both  in  lead  and  iron  pipes,  have  been  used  through¬ 
out.  As  the  city  pressure  supplies  water  to  only  three  stories,  eleven 
tanks,  holding  about  15,000  gallons,  are  placed  on  the  roof  to  supply  the 
three  upper  floors.  The  piping  has  been  so  arranged  that  if  the  city 
pressure  should  at  any  time  fall  off  the  third  floor  could  also  be  sup¬ 
plied  from  the  tanks.  A  pump  in  the  cellar  raises  the  water.  The 
fixtures  and  lines  of  pipes  have  been  kept  in  groups  adjoining  the 
chimney  stacks,  so  that  the  horizontal  branches  are  very  short,  and 
there  is  little  danger  of  freezing.  Water  tanks  are  cleansed  once  a 
year.  No  restriction  is  imposed  as  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  may 
be  used.  Steam  pipes  run  through  the  cellars  to  heat  the  bath  and 
other  basement  rooms.  Tenants  supply  the  heat  to  their  own  apart¬ 
ments.  Gas  is  placed  in  the  hallways  and  in  the  four  and  six  room 
tenements*,  oil  is  used  for  lighting  purposes  in  all  the  others. 
Kitchens  are  provided  with  ranges  and  boilers.  There  are  also  pan- 


188  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


tries,  and  clotliespresses  are  found  in  every  room.  There  are  wash- 
trays  and  sinks  in  the  sculleries.  Hot  and  cold  water  appliances  exist 
in  all  the  tenements.  Marble  mantles  and  fireplaces  are  in  all  four- 
room  tenements.  In  smaller  ones  the  room  adjoining  the  kitchen  has 
a  flue.  All  windows  have  shades  inside.  Front  windows  are  provided 
with  Venetian  blinds.  Kitchens  have  tables  on  hinges  so  that  when 
not  needed  for  use  the  space  may  be  made  available  by  letting  them 
down.  There  are  dumb-waiters,  and  electric  bells  are  provided  for 
every  tenement.  Halls  and  cellars  are  lighted  by  gas  from  sunset  to 
sunrise.  The  walls  of  all  rooms  are  painted.  Halls,  passages,  and 
living  rooms  are  wainscoted  and  trimmed  with  select  Virginia  pine, 
but  bedrooms  and  parlors  are  finished  in  whitewood,  left  its  natural 
color,  but  varnished  and  rubbed.  At  least  $500  annually  is  spent  for 
interior  decorations.  An  idea  of  the  external  decorations  and  the 
general  distribution  of  the  tenements  can  best  be  obtained  from  the 
accompanying  cut  and  second  floor  plan  of  the  buildings  (plans  Nos. 
14  A  and  14  B). 

Every  tenement  has  its  own  scullery,  varying  in  size  from  3  feet  to  9 
feet  in  length  by  6  feet  in  width,  a  separate  water-closet,  washtub,  ash 
flue,  coal  box,  sink,  boiler,  range,  hinged  table,  and  clothespress.  The 
habitation  of  the  family  is  not  only  completely  self-contained,  but  the 
maximum  number  of  conveniences  is  provided. 

The  buildings  contain,  besides  the  stores,  kindergarten,  library  and 
reading  room,  lecture  room,  bathrooms,  and  storage  rooms  already 
referred  to,  6  two-room,  74  three-room,  25  four-room,  and  3  six-room 
tenements,  in  all  108  separate  dwellings.  The  office,  carpenter  shop, 
etc.,  take  up  three  of  these,  so  that  105  only  are  for  rent.  The  average 
size  of  kitchens  in  two-room  tenements  is  10  feet  2  inches  by  12  feet; 
in  three-room  tenements,  10  feet  8  inches  by  13  feet;  in  four-room 
tenements,  11  feet  by  13  feet  8  inches;  in  six-room  tenements,  11  feet 
by  9  feet.  Bedrooms  vary  in  size  from  8  feet  by  10  feet  as  the  smallest 
to  9  feet  6  inches  by  15  feet  4  inches  as  the  largest.  The  height  of  the 
ceilings  is  8  feet  8  inches  throughout.  The  average  cubic  contents  of 
air  space  within  two  room  tenements  is  about  1,941  feet,  of  three-room 
tenements  3,143  feet,  of  four-room  tenements  4,593  feet,  and  six-room 
tenements  6,509  feet. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  buildings  contain  certain  useful  adjuncts. 
There  are  five  bathrooms,  with  floors  and  partitions  of  marble  and 
heavy  tubs  of  enameled  iron.  Hot  and  cold  water,  as  well  as  steam 
heat,  is  provided  in  them.  Bathing  is  free  and  very  much  resorted  to, 
in  the  summer  time  almost  constantly.  A  reading  room  and  free  circu¬ 
lating  library,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Pratt  Institute  of  Brooklyn, 
occupies  the  corner  store  space  on  Franklin  and  Java  streets.  The 
average  attendance  is  about  125  and  the  distribution  of  books  80  daily. 
Six  daily  papers,  32  periodicals  and  magazines,  and  3,000  volumes  consti¬ 
tute  the  equipment.  The  library  is  open  from  2  to  9  p.  m.  A  kinder¬ 
garten  was  opened  on  January  1, 1894.  It  occupies  a  large  room,  about 


ASTRAL  APARTMENTS,  3ROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK 
Plan  No.  14  a. 


'J.33B1S  VAVr 


I 

1  f* 


INDIA  STREET. 


ASTRAL  APARTMENTS,  BROOKLYN,  NEW  YORK. 
Plan  No.  14  b. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  189 

42  feet  square,  with  toilet  annex  properly  heated.  Outsiders  as  well  as 
children  of  tenants  receive  instruction. 

The  average  number  of  tenements  occupied  during  the  last  fiscal  year 
(1893)  was  74,  accommodating  325  persons.  This  number  represents  the 
smallest  rent  roll  since  the  enterprise  was  begun.  Usually  from  75  to  95 
tenements  are  occupied  at  one  time.  The  buildings  have  an  excellent 
sanitary  record.  There  have  been  no  epidemics  of  any  kind,  and  in  six 
years  but  eight  deaths  have  occurred.  Three  of  the  deceased  were 
under  five  years  of  age.  The  record  of  births  during  the  six  years  is 
thirty,  all  of  which  were  legitimate. 

The  rentals  for  two-room  tenements  are  $8  per  month  on  the  first 
story,  $7.50  on  the  second  story,  and  $7  on  the  four  upper  stories. 
Three-room  tenements  on  the  first  story  vary  in  rental  from  $10  to  $12 
per  month,  on  the  second  story  from  $11  to  $12,  on  the  third  story 
from  $10.50  to  $11.50,  on  the  fourth  story  from  $10  to  $11,  on  the  fifth 
story  from  $9.50  to  $11,  and  on  the  sixth  story  from  $9.50  to  $10.50. 
Four-room  tenements  on  the  first  story  rent  for  $14  per  month,  on  the 
second  story  $14  to  $16,  on  the  third  story  $13  to  $15,  on  .the  fourth 
story  $14  to  $14.50,  on  the  fifth  story  $12  to  $14,  and  on  the  sixth 
story  $11.50  to  $14.  Six-room  apartments  are  found  only  on  the  first 
three  stories,  and  they  rent  for  $16,  $17,  and  $18,  according  to  location, 
per  month.  There  was  received  for  rent  during  the  fiscal  year  1893 
$10,090.50.  About  $50  was  lost  through  nonpayment  of  rentals. 
.Rents  are  paid  monthly  in  advance  at  the  office  of  the  resident  agent 
in  the  building.  A  discount  of  10  per  cent  is  allowed  to  all  who  have 
paid  promptly  in  advance  during  one  year.  Tenants  are  requested  to 
give  ten  days’  notice  of  intention  to  leave,  but  rarely  do  so.  None 
have  been  ejected.  Rent  charges  have  not  advanced  or  declined  since 
the  opening  of  the  building. 

The  occupations  and  weekly  earnings  of  66  of  the  tenants  inhabiting 
the  buildings  when  the  inquiry  was  made  were  as  follows: 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  WEEKLY  EAKNINGS  OE  TENANTS  OF  THE  ASTRAL 

APARTMENTS. 


Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Average  weekly 
earnings. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Average  weekly 
earnings. 

1 

$12  00 

1 

$12. 00 

2 

15]  00 

u  nn 

4 

Glass  blowers . 

12. 00 

j 

1 

14  00 

1 

Lead  burner . 

20. 00 

7 

15  00 

14. 

Machinists . 

15.  00 

i 

Civil  engineer . 

30!  00 

1 

Newspaper  reporter. . . . 

25.  00 

10 

12  00 

2 

Painters .  . 

15.  00 

3 

Conductors . 

14.00 

1 

Plumber’s  assistant. . . . 

18. 00 

a 

9  00 

x 

Retired  fireman  . . . 

C  50.  00 

i 

18.  00 
an  r  no  to  20  00 

1 

Silversmith . . 

15. 00 

A 

1 

Stonecutter _ ........ 

18. 00 

14  00 

1 

12.  00 

1 

Fireman . . 

14.00 

a  Per  month. 


190  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

It  is  calculated  that  about  15  per  cent  of  the  breadwinner’s  earnings, 
as  a  rule,  are  paid  for  rent  in  these  tenements.  This  average  is  cer¬ 
tainly  lower  than  for  fair  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  No 
other  equally  good  exists.  In  60  per  cent  of  the  cases  the  duration  of 
tenancy  has  been  two  years  or  more,  20  per  cent  between  one  and  two 
years,  and  20  per  cent  one  year  or  under.  Tenants  are  not  permitted 
to  sublet  any  part  of  their  tenements.  No  form  of  application  is  required 
from  a  prospective  tenant,  nor  are  leases  or  contracts  signed. 

Twelve  of  the  heads  of  tenant  families  live  less  than  one-half  mile 
from  their  regular  places  of  employment,  29  between  one-half  and  one 
mile,  the  cost  of  the  round  trip  to  them  being  6  cents,  and  33  work  in 
places  more  than  one  mile  distant  and  are  obliged  to  pay  5  cents  for 
the  street- car  fare  each  way. 

A  resident  agent  is  in  charge.  He  has  two  men  as  assistants,  who  are 
occupied  in  making  repairs,  keeping  things  in  order,  and  doing  general 
work,  and  one  woman  who  does  scrubbing. 

The  Astral  Apartments  were  opened  for  occupation  in  1887.  The 
original  cost  of  the  lot  was  $23,000  and  of  the  buildings  $260,000.  The 
money  is  not  represented  by  share  capital,  but  came  from  an  endowment 
fund  intended  to  support  the  Pratt  Institute.  No  reserve  has  been  set 
aside  nor  has  any  dividend  been  provided.  The  annual  rate  of  net 
earnings  has  been  about  2  per  cent. 

Notwithstanding  the  comparatively  low  rentals,  and  the  excellence 
of  the  accommodation  afforded,  the  buildings  are  not  as  popular  as  they 
should  be  for  residential  purposes.  Their  solidity  of  structure  is  often 
quoted  as  an  objection  by  would-be  tenants,  who  affect  to  see  in  the 
splendid  and  substantial  looking  facade  a  barracks-like  appearance. 
They  frequently  say  that  the  buildings  appear  to  them  to  be  too  much 
like  an  institution.  It  is  hoped  that  in  time  these  objections  will  be 
surmounted.  The  large  percentage  of  tenants  who  have  occupied 
apartments  two  years  or  over  gives  promise  that,  once  the  buildings  are 
tilled  up,  more  will  remain  permanently.  If  this  should  happen  the 
financial  returns  will  be  more  satisfactory  than  they  are  to-day. 

IMPROVED  DWELLINGS  ASSOCIATION,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

The  model  tenement  buildings  belonging  to  this  company  are  located 
on  Seventy-first  and  Seventy-second  streets  and  First  avenue.  The 
frontage  of  the  lot  on  the  avenue  is  200  feet,  and  140  feet  on  Seventy- 
first  and  Seventy-second  streets,  respectively.  The  total  superficial 
area  of  the  lot  is  40,000  square  feet,  of  which  24,080  square  feet  have 
been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  in  the  form  of  a  courtyard*  It  is 
designed  entirely  for  the  free  use  of  occupants.  Children  play  in  cov¬ 
ered  passageways,  or  in  their  homes,  in  rainy  weather.  They  are  not 
allowed  to  congregate  on  the  stairs  or  in  the  hallways.  In  fair  weather 
the  open  space  is  used  for  playgrounds  and  for  drying  clothes. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


191 


The  buildings  have  six  stories  and  are  65  feet  in  height.  They  are 
built  of  brick  and  the  exterior  walls  are  2£  feet  thick.  Each  house  is 
separated  from  the  other  by  a  brick  party  wall.  The  roofing  material 
is  of  asphalt,  and  the  staircases  are  constructed  of  slate  and  stone. 
Special  arrangements  have  been  made  in  the  construction  to  render 
the  buildings  as  nearly  fireproof  as  possible.  The  houses  are  solidly 
built,  and  the  stairways  and  landings  have  nothing  inflammable  in 
their  composition.  Fire  escapes  are  found  in  the  rear,  but  these  are 
only  to  a  small  extent  a  necessity.  There  are  cellars,  which  are  paved 
with  asphalt.  They  are  divided  by  brick  walls  and  wood  partitions 
into  compartments,  each  tenement  having  a  separate  one  for  storing 
coal  and  wood.  The  buildings  have  no  basement. 

In  the  “dumb-bell”  shaped  houses  the  staircases  and  lifts,  together 
with  the  water-closets,  are  in  that  portion  which  connects  the  front  and 
rear  tenements.  The  staircases  are  in  the  center,  with  the  two  ’water- 
closets  on  one  side  and  the  two  lifts  on  the  other.  Four  windows  open 
to  the  court,  two  on  each  side,  and  these  give  light  and  through  venti¬ 
lation  to  the  stairways,  corridor,  and  closets,  and  prevent  odors  from 
getting  into  the  apartments.  With  the  exception  of  the  ground  floors, 
and  in  the  two  corner  houses  the  upper  floors,  each  room  opens  directly 
upon  the  staircase  and  hallway.  No  special  arrangements  exist  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants  upon  stairways  and  land¬ 
ings;  but  it  should  be  noticed  that  in  no  case  do  more  than  four  families 
on  each  floor  use  the  same  staircase.  Each  tenement  on  the  upper  floors 
of  the  “dumb-bell”  houses  has  a  private  corridor  for  the  sole  use  of 
its  occupants.  This  connects  with  the  staircase.  In  the  other  houses 
tli ere  is  no  corridor  except  that  which  is  taken  up  by  the  stairway  and 
landing.  Every  room  connects  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows, 
with  the  open  air.  Each  tenement  has  free  ventilation  from  front  to 
rear  by  windows  and  transoms. 

The  houses  are  not  self-contained.  In  the  “  dumb-bell  ”  houses  each 
water-closet  is  used  by  two  tenants.  In  the  others  each  tenant  has  a 
separate  water  closet.  The  average  number  of  persons  using  a  water- 
closet  may  be  set  down  at  eight  in  one  case  and  four  in  the  other.  The 
system  in  use  is  the  chain  and  hopper,  with  a  good,  strong  flush  of 
water.  The  waste  water  is  carried  down  under  the  back  building  to 
two  flush  tanks,  thence  to  the  sewers.  All  escape  pipes  are  run  down 
the  ash  shoots,  and  thence  under  ground  to  the  sewers.  There  is  no 
surface  drainage  anywhere.  In  the  houses  having  no  rear  tenements 
the  water-closets,  washtubs,  and  siuks  are  in  sculleries  in  a  rear  exten¬ 
sion,  and  are  reached  from  the  living  room  or  kitchen,  the  sink  being 
nearest  the  living  room,  then  the  tub,  and  then  the  water-closet.  Two 
doors  intervene  between  the  living  room  and  the  water-closet.  The 
sculleries  are  lighted  by  two  windows,  one  on  the  side  and  the  other  at 
the  rear,  both  opening  to  the  court.  The  living  rooms  in  the  “  dumb¬ 
bell  ”  houses  are  the  front  rooms  of  the  front  three-room  tenements  and 


192  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


the  larger  rooms  of  the  rear  two-room  tenements.  This  arrangement 
leaves  the  bedrooms  toward  the  staircase  too  small  for  placing  ordinary 
beds,  especially  when  one  corner  of  each  room  is  cut  off.  The  “  dumb¬ 
bell”  houses  have  two  lifts  each ;  the  other  houses  have  one  each.  These 
are  for  fuel  and  supplies  only.  The  quantity  of  water  allowed  per  ten¬ 
ement  is  unlimited.  Each  house  of  the  “  dumb-bell  ”  pattern  has  a 
furnace  in  the  basement.  This,  by  means  of  a  register,  heats  the  large 
hall  on  the  ground  floor.  The  smoke  pipe  of  this  furnace  passes  through 
the  ash  shoot  and  up  alongside  of  it,  heating  it  sufficiently  to  prevent 
the  water  pipes  from  freezing  in  the  winter.  The  furnace  also  furnishes 
steam  heat  for  use  in  the  laundries.  Tenants  heat  their  own  apart¬ 
ments.  As  a  rule  the  tenants  use  oil  lamps  for  lighting  purposes. 
The  halls  and  staircases  are  lighted  with  gas  every  night  from  dusk 
until  10.30  p.  m.  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  and  until  10  p.  m.  on  other 
days. 

Drying  clothes  is  done  in  the  court  by  people  living  on  the  lower 
floors,  and  on  the  roof  by  those  living  on  the  upper  floors.  For  this 
purpose  iron  supports  are  placed  in  the  yard  and  on  the  roof.  Hanging 
clothes  out  of  the  windows  is  not  permitted ;  neither  is  it  allowed  on 
balconies  nor  on  fire  escapes.  Washing  is  not  done  within  the  dwelling, 
but  in  laundries  which  are  provided  for  the  free  use  of  tenants. 

Sinks  in  the  living  rooms  of  the  “dumb-bell”  houses  are  inclosed  in 
a  closet  of  wood,  which,  when  closed,  looks  like  a  clothespress.  There 
are  three  shelves  over  the  sink  in  each  of  these  closets.  Enameled 
iron  is  the  material  used  in  the  construction  of  the  sinks. 

The  cooking  range  is  furnished  by  the  tenants.  The  fuel  storage 
compartment,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  as  existing  in  the 
cellar,  has  a  capacity  for  about  two  tons  of  coal  and  a  small  supply  of 
wood. 

The  janitor  empties  the  ash  chambers  daily  by  carrying  the  ashes  in 
barrels  to  the  street,  where  they  are  carted  away. 

Each  living  room  has  a  ventilated  compartment  used  as  a  pantry  and 
for  similar  purposes.  Few  clothespresses  are  found ;  none  exist  in  the 
“dumb-bell”  houses;  in  the  others  sometimes  there  is  one,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  two,  to  each  tenement.  A  fireplace  is  found  in  one  room  of 
each  of  the  three-room  and  four -room  tenements.  Heating  registers 
are  found  only  in  the  main  corridor  on  the  first  floor.  There  are  no 
window  shutters,  but  shades  have  been  put  at  all  of  the  front  windows. 
Front  balconies  are  placed  on  alternate  stories  of  each  corner  house; 
also  similarly  for  the  four-room  tenements. 

As  regards  internal  decorations,  the  living  rooms  have  been  painted 
and  the  bedrooms  calcimined.  The  main  halls  on  the  ground  floor 
have  painted  walls,  and  the  floors  are  covered  with  linoleum.  The 
external  decorations  will  best  appear  from  the  accompanying  cut  of  the 
buildings  (plan  No.  15  A).  A  plan  of  the  various  floors  is  also  given 
(plan  No.  15  B). 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  IMPROVED  DWELLINGS  ASSOCIATION,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Plan  No.  1  5  a. 


* 


‘l^aais  mz 


72d  STREET 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


193 


From  the  plan  all  internal  arrangements  are  easily  discerned.  The 
dimensions  of  each  room  are  also  approximately  given.  The  buildings 
contain  64  two-room,  114  three-room,  and  42  four-room  tenements. 
There  are  also  10  stores,  6  laundries,  1  meeting  room,  and  a  large  bath¬ 
room,  22  feet  by  20  feet.  The  height  of  ceilings  is  11  feet,  8  feet  9 
inches,  and  8  feet  3  inches  in  the  different  stories.  The  amount  of 
cubic  air  space  in  the  typical  two-room  tenement  is  about  1,550  feet. 
The  greater  number  of  the  three  room  tenements  have  a  cubic  air 
measurement  of  3,267  feet;  a  few  contain  over  4,000  feet.  Three  thou¬ 
sand  feet  is  the  smallest  cubic  measurement  of  a  four-room  tenement 
and  4,800  the  largest. 

Two-room  tenements  in  the  first  story  rent  for  $6.75  and  $7  per 
month;  in  the  second  story,  from  $7.25  to  $7.75;  in  the  third  story, 
from  $7  to  $7.50;  in  the  fourth  story,  from  $6.75  to  $7;  in  the  fifth 
story,  from  $6.50  to  $6.75;  in  the  sixth  story,  from  $6.25  to  $6.50. 
The  rental  for  three-room  tenements  varies  from  $11  to  $15  in  the  first 
story,  from  $11  to  $13.50  in  the  second  story,  from  $10.50  to  $13  in  the 
third  story,  and  thence  diminishing  by  50  cents  per  story  until  the 
sixth,  where  $9  and  $11.50  represent  the  minimum  and  maximum  fig¬ 
ures.  The  rental  of  four- room  tenements  in  the  first  story  is  $11;  in 
the  second  story,  from  $12.50  to  $14;  in  the  third  story,  from  $12  to 
$13.50;  in  the  fourth  story,  from  $11.50  to  $13;  in  the  fifth  story,  from 
$11  to  $12.50;  in  the  sixth  story,  from  $10.50  to  $12.  The  total  sum 
received  for  rent  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  $22,602.96. 

In  May,  1893,  when  these  buildings  were  visited,  210  families  were 
being  accommodated.  No  epidemics  have  taken  place  in  the  buildings 
since  their  occupation;  neither  have  any  criminal  convictions  occurred 
among  the  inhabitants.  The  exact  record  of  births  and  deaths  has  not 
been  kept. 

This  is  the  only  block  of  tenements  owned  by  the  company.  The 
original  cost  of  the  laud  was  $45,000  and  of  the  buildings  $225,000. 
The  total  amount  of  present  share  capital  is  $285,000.  No  money  has 
been  borrowed.  Five  per  cent  dividend  has  been  paid  annually  since 
the  foundation  of  the  company,  and  a  reserve  of  $32,147  has  been  set 
aside.  The  dividend  and  reserve  together  represent  net  earnings  of  6 
per  cent.  Besides  this,  $12,500  have  been  taken  from  the  earnings  and 
spent  in  improvements.  The  present  estimated  valiip  of  the  property 
is  $300,000.  In  round  numbers,  $1,250  represents  the  loss  of  rental 
resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  last  fiscal  year.  Sepa¬ 
rate  apartments  .are  not  sold  to  individuals  inhabiting  them. 

Payments  of  rent  are  required  monthly  in  advance,  but  laxity  is  per¬ 
mitted  in  cases  of  good  rent  payers.  Weekly  installments  usually  liqui¬ 
date  the  charge  in  these  instances.  The  weekly  system  was  formerly 
employed  in  the  smaller  tenements,  but  was  found  to  cause  complica¬ 
tions.  The  tenant  is  required  to  give  five  days’  notice  of  his  intention 
to  quit,  but  this  regulation  is  never  enforced.  A  tenant  in  arrears 


t 


H.  Ex.  354 - 13 


194  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


who  has  no  good  reason  for  not  paying  his  rent  usually  finds  steps 
taken  for  his  ejectment  after  three  days’  notice.  One  and  one-half  per 
cent  represents  the  loss  through  nonpayment  of  arrears  during  the  last 
fiscal  year. 

But  one  change  has  been  made  in  rentals  since  the  enterprise  was 
founded.  When  regular  real  estate  agents  were  placed  in  charge  all 
rents  were  reduced.  Originally  they  were  unquestionably  put  at  too 
high  a  figure.  The  rentals  charged  for  apartments  in  these  model 
tenement  buildings  are  25  per  cent  less,  considering  the  superior  ad¬ 
vantages,  than  those  asked  for  accommodations  in  the  neighborhood. 
Rents  are  paid  at  the  office  of  the  resident  agent. 

No  statistics  have  ever  been  prepared  as  to  the  occupations  and  earn¬ 
ings  of  heads  of  tenant  families.  At  the  present  time  about  40  per  cent 
are  estimated  to  be  Germans,  and  the  rest  are  mainly  Bohemians,  Eng¬ 
lish,  and  Americans.  A  fair  proportion  of  the  tenants  belong  to  the 
mechanical  class,  and  they  command  good  wages — some  earning  as 
high  as  $5  a  day;  probably  50  per  cent  earn  $3  per  day.  Ten  per  cent 
are  clerks,  and  the  remainder,  drivers  and  day  laborers,  earn  about  $2 
per  day. 

The  agent  selects  tenants  from  among  applicants  in  a  general  way. 
He  does  not  ask  for  recommendations,  since  these,  experience  shows 
him,  are  often  given  by  landlords  who  wish  to  get  rid  of  doubtful  ten¬ 
ants;  and  he  does  not  investigate,  because  of  the  delay  which  might 
result  in  the  loss  of  desirable  occupants.  “  Sizing  up,”  as  he  himself 
expresses  it,  is  the  method  in  which  he  has  most  confidence.  No  lease 
or  contract  is  made.  When  tenants  rent  apartments  they  are  supposed 
to  sign  an  agreement  to  observe  the  following  regulations,  which  form¬ 
ality,  however,  is  rarely  complied  with : 

It  is  distinctly  understood  that  the  renting  is  for  one  month  only. 

All  rents  are  payable  monthly  in  advance,  at  the  office  of  the  asso¬ 
ciation.  This  regulation  .will  be  most  strictly  enforced. 

Disorderly  tenants  will  be  immediately  dispossessed. 

Tenants  will  be  held  responsible  for  all  preventable  damage  to  the 
apartments  they  occupy. 

In  cold  weather  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  freezing  of  the  water 
pipes. 

The  association  does  not  hold  itself  responsible  for  water  damage. 

All  garbage  must  be  burned.  Throwing  paper,  vegetables,  or  other 
refuse,  oyster  shells,  etc.,  down  the  ash  shoots  is  strictly  forbidden. 
Nothing  whatever  may  be  thrown  into  the  water-closets. 

Tenants  are  required  to  take  weekly  turns  cleaning  closet,  flight  of 
stairs,  and  hallway  leading  to  their  apartment,  which  must  oe  swept 
every  day  and  scrubbed  once  each  week. 

Clothes  may  only  be  dried  in  the  yard  or  on  the  roof. 

Carpets  may  only  be  shaken  or  beaten  in  the  yards  at  convenient 
times,  to  be  determined  by  the  agent. 

Plants  must  not  be  watered  outside  the  windows. 

The  window  shades  must  be  kept  in  repair  by  the  tenants. 

No  tenant  will  be  allowed  to  sublet  any  portion  of  the  apartment  or 
take  a  boarder  without  the  permission  of  the  association. 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


195 


No  animals  will  be  allowed  in  the  apartments  or  about  the  premises. 

In  case  of  contagious  or  infectious  sickness,  notice  of  the  same  must 
be  given  to  the  agent  as  quickly  as  possible. 

In  case  of  fire,  notice  must  be  instantly  given  to  the  agent  or  janitor. 

An  agent  in  residence  has  general  charge  of  the  buildings.  He  col¬ 
lects  the  rents  at  his  office,  recommends  repairs,  and  selects  tenants. 
His  force  of  assistants  comprises  a  janitor,  at  $G0  per  month,  who 
keeps  order  about  the  place,  carries  out  the  ashes,  and  cleans  up  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  court;  a  night  watchman,  at  $40  per  month,  who  patrols 
all  the  cellars  and  staircases  once  every  hour  during  the  night  and 
cleans  up  a  portion  of  the  court;  an  engineer,  at  $80  per  month,  who 
looks  after  the  boiler,  etc.,  and  does  all  the  plumbing;  four  women,  at 
wages  varying  from  $8  to  $30  per  month,  according  to  the  amount  of 
work  required  of  them.  These  are  known  technically  as  housekeepers, 
some  having  several  houses  to  supervise  and  others  having  but  one. 
They  sweep  the  main  hallways,  clean  up  apartments  when  tenants 
move  out,  light  and  turn  off  the  gas  in  the  stairways,  clean  up  the 
laundries,  and  see  that  tenants  keep  the  stairways  in  good  order. 

The  rear  section  of  the  ground  floor  of  one  of  the  “dumb-bell” 
houses  is  used  as  a  bathroom.  The  baths  are  accessible  to  women  from 
2  to  5  p.  m.  every  day;  to  men  from  5  to  8  p.  m.  on  week  days  and 
from  8  a.  m.  to  12  m.  on  Sundays.  The  baths  are  heated  with  steam  and 
supplied  with  cold  water.  All  tenants  have  free  access  to  the  baths 
and  use  them  liberally.  No  statistics  of  attendance  are  kept,  and  no 
bath  tickets  are  issued.  A  housekeeper  is  in  charge.  A  small  sitting 
room  adjoins  the  bathroom,  where  people  wait  their  turn.  The  original 
cost  of  fitting  up  these  baths  was  about  $300,  and  the  loss  of  rent  from 
two  two-room  tenements  results  annually  from  their  maintenance. 

In  houses  of  the  “  dumb-bell  ”  pattern  there  are  two  laundries  to 
each,  one  in  the  basement,  for  the  occupants  of  the  lower  floors,  and  the 
other  in  the  sixth  story,  for  the  tenants  of  the  upper  floors.  The  latter 
takes  up  the  space  of  one  two-room  rear  tenement.  A  considerable 
loss  of  rental  results  from  the  space  they  now  occupy.  Six  two-room 
tenements  are  taken  up  in  their  provision.  Each  laundry  is  fitted  with 
eight  tubs.  A  steam  pipe  is  fitted  in  each  tub,  so  as  to  provide  escape¬ 
ment  near  the  bottom  and  thus  heat  the  water  that  is  in  it.  In  the 
other  houses  of  this  group  each  apartment  has  its  own  washtub  in  the 
scullery.  The  fittings  for  laundries  originally  cost  about  $1,200, 

Across  the  court  from  the  bathroom,  and  occupying  a  similar  space 
and  position,  is  a  meeting  room.  This  was  used  as  a  reading  room, 
and  newspapers  were  furnished  by  the  company,  but  the  young  people 
of  the  place  became  disorderly  and  it  was  closed.  It  should  be  said, 
however,  that  there  was  no  one  in  charge  of  the  room  at  that  time. 
This  space  is  now  used  as  a  mission  Sunday  school  and  for  reunions. 
The  cost  of  fittings  was  about  $150,  and  the  loss  of  rent  of  two  two- 
room  tenements  results  from  the  foundation  of  this  institution. 


196  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR 


These  buildings  were  opened  in  1882,  and  the  stockholders  include 
such  prominent  gentlemen  as  William  B.  Cutting,  Henry  B.  Pellew, 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  William  W.  Astor,  J.  W.  Drexel,  R.  T.  Auchmuty, 
J.  &  W.  Seligman  &  Co.,  and  Amos  E.  Eno.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  such  of  these  gentlemen  as  are  living  to-day  not  merely  retain 
their  financial  holdings,  but  give  to  the  enterprise  a  vast  amount  of 
personal  interest. 

The  intention  from  the  first  has  been  not  to  divide  any  revenue  in 
excess  of  5  per  cent  per  annum.  These  buildings  are  the  pioneers 
among  New  York  enterprises  for  the  improvement  of  the  homes  of 
working  people. 

TENEMENT  HOUSE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

The  Tenement  House  Building  Company  of  New  York  was  founded 
in  1885.  Their  property  was  opened  for  occupancy  December  1,  1887. 
In  a  circular  issued  soon  after  its  formation,  after  calling  attention  to 
the  terrible  condition,  sanitary  and  moral,  of  the  overcrowded,  ill-kept, 
and  otherwise  unhealthy  tenements  of  the  city,  the  company  announced 
its  purpose  to  contribute  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  by  erecting 
model  houses,  and  managing  them  so  as  to  secure  a  fair  return  upon 
the  capital  invested.  Its  dividends  were  limited  to  4  per  cent.  All 
profits  beyond  this  figure  were  to  be  set  aside  as  a  reserve  fund,  avail¬ 
able  to  secure  stockholders  against  cessation  of  dividends  in  periods 
of  depression,  when  rent  paying  is  a  difficult  matter  and  also  to  make 
rebates  to  tenants  under  certain  conditions.  The  lower  and  densely 
peopled  quarters  of  the  east  side  were  selected  as  the  locality  for  build¬ 
ing.  Indeed,  the  model  buildings  were  located  but  a  stone’s  throw  from 
the  first  tenement  house  built  in  America,  in  1838. 

The  property  of  the  Tenement  House  Building  Company  is  situated 
at  338  to  344  Cherry  street.  The  frontage  of  the  lot  is  116  feet  8  inches, 
and  its  depth  is  98  feet  7  inches.  The  buildings  cover  the  whole  front- 
xage,  and  run  to  a  depth  of  35  feet;  70  per  cent  of  the  whole  lot  is  built 
upon.  The  open  space  consists  of  one  central  court,  which  is  58  feet 
long  and  13£  feet  wide,  except  at  the  rear  end,  where  its  width  is  5£ 
feet.  There  are  two  side  courts  equal  in  length  to  the  central,  and 
varying  from  5  to  9  feet  in  width.  These  courts  are  paved  with  grano¬ 
lithic,  and  are  given  up  entirely  to  the  free  use  of  the  tenants.  Chil¬ 
dren  use  them  as  playgrounds,  unhindered  by  the  restrictions  custo¬ 
mary  in  tenement  house  districts.  No  part  is  covered  to  serve  as  a 
recreation  ground  in  rainy  weather.  At  such  periods,  and  when  it  is 
cold,  children  play  in  halls  and  on  staircases.  The  courtyards  are  also 
used  for  drying  clothes.  They  are  swept  and  washed  twice  daily. 

The  houses  stand  4  feet  back  from  the  building  line.  This  space  is 
open  to  the  level  of  the  cellar  floor.  The  idea  is  to  furnish  light  and 
ventilation  to  the  cellar.  This  excavation  is  protected  by  an  iron 
grating,  so  that  nothing  may  fall  into  it  from  the  sidewalks. 


First  floor. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  TENEMENT  HOUSE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 

Plan  No.  16. 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


197 


The  buildings  have  six  stories  and  measure  70  feet  in  height,  reck¬ 
oning  from  the  basement  floor.  Brick  is  the  material  used  in  construc¬ 
tion.  Every  arrangement  has  been  made  to  guard  against  fire.  The 
exterior  walls  are  18  inches  thick.  The  roofs  are  of  brick,  guarded  with 
iron  fences.  Staircases  are  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  brick  walls, 
and  the  stairways  are  of  iron,  with  slate  slabs.  The  stairs  and  floors 
throughout  are  practically  fireproof,  and  the  first-story  halls  and  all 
water-closets  have  iron  beams  and  tile  floors.  Brick  walls  divide  the 
block  into  four  separate  buildings.  Iron  bridges  at  the  top  span  the 
open  space  between  the  rear  sections  of  each  house,  so  that  occupants 
of  a  burning  quarter  would  have  no  difficulty  in  escaping  to  a  place  of 
safety.  Special  fire  escapes  also  exist  at  the  rear. 

There  are  excellent  basement  cellars  paved  with  granolithic.  Certain 
sections  are  used  for  laundries  and  bathrooms,  while  others  are  par¬ 
titioned  off  to  furnish  a  storage  closet  for  fuel  or  provisions.  The 
accompanying  view  and  ground  floor  plan  (plan  No.  16)  give  an  idea  of 
the  external  appearance  of  the  buildings  and  the  distribution  and 
internal  arrangement  of  rooms,  halls,  stairways,  and  sanitary  con¬ 
veniences.  Hallways  in  the  two  end  buildings  of  the  group  are  4  feet 
wide,  and  extend  from  the  front  to  the  rear.  Three  families  on  each 
floor  find  entrance  to  their  apartments  through  them.  The  two  middle 
hallways  are  5  feet  wide,  extending  also  from  front  to  rear,  and  are 
used  by  six  families  on  each  floor. 

The  two  end  buildings  afford  accommodations  for  three  families  on 
each  floor.  In  front  there  is  a  three-room  tenement,  with  one  large  and 
two  small  rooms.  •  This  tenement  is  separated  by  the  stairway  from  the 
water-closets.  Further  back  are  two  two-room  tenements,  in  which 
the  living  room  is  14  feet  by  10  feet  and  the  bedroom  10  feet  by  9  feet. 
As  a  rule  but  one  doorway  connects  the  tenement,  as  a  whole,  with 
the  hallway.  The  exceptions  occur  where  the  rear  tenements  are  so 
arranged  that  they  may  become  two  suites  of  two  rooms  and  a  single 
room  tenement,  or  one  tenement  of  three  rooms  and  another  of  two 
rooms.  No  further  arrangement  exists  for  securing  independence  and 
isolation  to  the  individual  family.  None  of  the  tenements  are  self- 
contained.  Water-closets  exist  in  the  middle  buildings  in  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  one  to  every  two  families,  and  in  the  end  buildings  two  for  every 
three  families.  Water-closets  are  situated  inside  the  buildings,  either 
in  the  rear  of  the  staircase  or  opposite  the  landings.  Light  enters 
directly  into  one  from  the  outside,  whence  it  is  communicated  indirectly 
to  the  others.  The  situation  is  not  especially  fortunate  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view.  Each  closet  is  provided  with  an  automatic  four-gallon 
flush  and  earthen  bowl.  They  are  heated  by  steam  and  ventilated  by 
means  of  ventilating  flues  placed  outside  the  window,  through  which 
access  is  given  to  an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  air.  Soil  pipes  open 
above  the  roof.  Superior  plumbing  exists  in  every  part  of  the  building. 
Running  water  is  provided  on  each  floor.  No  limit  is  placed  upon  the 
,  quantity  allowed  tenants. 


198  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Hallways  are  heated  by  steam.  Tenants  heat  their  apartments 
from  the  kitchen  fires.  Occasionally  oil  stoves  are  used;  but  as  a 
rule  coal  is  the  fuel  burned.  The  houses  being  solidly  built,  there  is 
no  trouble  in  keeping  the  rooms  at  a  proper  temperature.  Washing  and 
drying  clothes  are  not  done  within  the  apartments.  Basement  laun¬ 
dries  exist,  and  the  courtyards  are  used  for  drying  purposes  by  running 
lines  from  the  fire  escapes  to  pulleys  fixed  on  poles  in  the  yard.  Drying 
on  the  roof  has  been  found  impracticable  on  account  of  occasional 
appropriation  of  articles  by  others  than  the  owner. 

Gas  is  found  only  in  the  hallways,  where  it  is  kept  burning  till  10  p.m. 
at  ordinary  times,  and  until  11  p.  m.  on  holidays.  Tenants  furnish 
the  light  in  their  own  apartments. 

Ashes  and  garbage  are.  taken  down  by  dumb  waiters  and  emptied 
into  cans  under  the  sidewalk.  The  cans  themselves  are  then  lifted  up 
through  an  opening  in  the  sidewalk  and  emptied  into  the  garbage 
cart. 

Each  apartment  has  a  clothespress.  There  are  sinks  in  the  kitchen 
and,  in  some  cases,  shelf  cupboards  are  built  above  them.  There  is  an 
elevator  for  hoisting  washing,  food,  fuel,  etc.  Walls  of  hallways  are 
painted  dark  at  the  bottom  and  a  lighter  color  at  the  top.  Iron  screens 
are  provided  for  first-floor  windows.  The  plans  give  the  dimensions  of 
each  particular  room.  Ceilings  on  the  first  floor  are  10  feet  high,  on 
the  remaining  five,  9  feet.  There  are  43  two-room  and  61  three-room 
tenements  in  the  buildings.  The  total  cubic  air  space  averages  2,580 
feet  per  family. 

No  epidemics  have  taken  place  within  the  buildings  since  their  occu¬ 
pancy.  Sickness  is  infrequent.  Six  adults  and  five  children,  in  all, 
have  died  in  five  years.  At  the  time  the  present  inquiry  was  made, 
94  tenements  out  of  the  total  104  were  occupied. 

The  rental  charged  for  two-room  tenements  is  $8  per  month  in  the 
first  and  second  stories,  $7.50  per  month  in  the  third  and  fourth  stories, 
and  $7  per  month  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  stories.  There  are  small  tene¬ 
ments  at  $6.50.  The  rent  of  three-room  tenements  ranges  as  follows: 
At  the  front,  $14  in  the  first  story,  $13.50  in  the  second  and  third  sto¬ 
ries,  $12.50  in  the  fourth  story,  and  $12  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  stories; 
at  the  back,  $10  to  $11  in  the  first  four  stories,  and  $9.50  in  the  upper 
two.  The  total  sum  received  for  rentals  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was 
$10,792.  The  loss  of  rentals  resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  was 
$1,460.  About  10  per  cent  of  the  apartments  were  unoccupied  during 
the  year.  Bents  are  paid  monthly  in  installments.  Tenants  take  the 
money  to  the  office  of  the  resident  agent.  The  rules  prescribe  that  pay¬ 
ments  must  be  made  in  advance,  but  installments  are  accepted  during 
the  current  month  whenever  convenient.  No  explicit  regulations  exist 
for  dealing  with  tenants  in  arrears.  The  committee  of  management 
inquire  into  such  cases  and  deal  with  individuals  according  to  circum¬ 
stances.  Sometimes  arrearages  may  accumulate  for  four  months  before 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  199 

eviction  takes  place.  Leniency  is  shown  particularly  where  the  parties 
have  been  sick  or  out  of  work.  The  total  sum  lost  through  nonpay¬ 
ment  of  arrearages  of  rents  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  approxi¬ 
mately  $253.75. 

The  rentals  have,  generally  speaking,  remained  stationary  during  the 
whole  period.  A  rebate  of  50  cents  per  month  was  made  in  the  price 
charged  for  rear  tenements  on  account  of  the  erection  of  new  buildings 
on  adjoining  property  which  interfered  somewhat  with  the  light.  The 
rents  are  fixed  at  a  slightly  lower  rate  than  for  accommodations  in  the 
neighborhood,  the  best  of  which  are  not  nearly  so  good  as  in  the  model 
buildings.  Subletting  is  prohibited,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  majority 
of  the  families  keep  boarders  or  lodgers.  When  objection  is  raised  the 
interlopers  are  claimed  as  relatives.  The  occupants  of  the  houses  are 
principally  Russian  Hebrews  engaged  in  shirt,  tie,  and  cigar  making. 

The  average  term  of  occupancy  during  the  first  three  years  was  found 
to  be  thirteen  months,  or  more  than  double  the  average  period  for  tene¬ 
ment  houses,  which  is  not  more  than  six  months.  Repair  and  cleaning 
of  apartments  are,  under  such  circumstances,  a  lighter  charge  for  model 
than  for  ordinary  tenements.  Tenants  do  not  sign  any  special  lease. 
On  eutering  they  pay  one  month’s  rent  in  advance.  Their  receipt  bears 
the  printed  statement  that  the  apartments  are  rented  on  the  following 
conditions: 

The  second  of  each  month  is  the  last  date  by  which  all  rents  must  be 
paid. 

A  deposit  of  $1  must  be  made  with  the  agent  for  the  use  of  the  keys 
and  to  insure  their  proper  return.  The  deposit  will  be  returned  upon 
the  surrender  of  all  the  keys. 

Only  quiet,  honorable,  and  respectable  families  are  accepted  as  ten¬ 
ants  and  tolerated  in  the  house;  no  tailoring  or  any  other  kind  of  shop 
work  is  allowed  in  the  rooms. 

No  nails  are  to  be  driven  into  the  walls.  Tenants  must  bear  the  cost 
of  repair  of  any  damages  arising  from  their  carelessness,  and  from  the 
violation  of  this  rule. 

Tenants  must  (by  turn)  scrub  and  clean  their  hallways  and  closets. 

No  tenant  is  permitted  to  sublet  any  portion  of  his  apartments  nor 
take  any  lodgers,  without  the  agent’s  consent. 

Tenants  are  requested  to  prevent  their  children  from  playing  on  the 
stairways. 

All  garbage  is  to  be  removed  to  the  cellar;  the  dummy  may  be  used 
for  this  purpose. 

Nothing  shall  be  placed  on  the  fire  escapes.  They  shall  be  kept  clear 
of  incumbrances. 

No  solid  matter  is  to  be  thrown  into  the  waste  pipes. 

No  playing  upon  musical  instruments,  nor  any  noise  which  would  dis¬ 
turb  other  tenants  is  allowed  after  10  p.  m. 

Tenants  must  not  loiter  about  the  halls  and  stairways. 

Tenants  are  earnestly  requested  to  report  to  the  agent  any  violation 
of  these  rules  on  the  part  of  any  tenant  or  others. 

Tenants  not  conforming  strictly  to  all  and  each  of  these  rules  (as  well 
as  to  other  rules  from  time  to  time  issued  by  the  company)  will  not  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  houses. 


200  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

Tenants  are  earnestly  requested  to  report  to  the  agent  at  once  of  any 
willful  destruction  of  property  or  of  any  suspicious  characters  loitering 
around  the  hallways  or  roof. 

The  administrative  department  comprises  a  resident  agent,  who  is  in 
charge,  and  who  collects  the  rent,  selects  tenants,  and  supervises  the 
buildings.  He  has,  for  assistants,  a  helper  at  $20  per  month  and  a  char¬ 
woman,  who  is  employed  for  each  house,  at  $8  per  month.  Stairways 
and  halls  are  scrubbed  twice  a  week  and  swept  every  day.  There  is 
also  a  fireman,  who  attends  to  the  engine  and  baths  and  controls  the 
water  supply. 

The  rear  space  of  the  lower  floor  of  one  of  the  middle  buildings  is 
rented  at  $37  per  month  for  use  as  a  kindergarten.  Instruction  is  given 
to  children  free,  those  residing  in  the  tenements  being  preferred.  A 
charge  of  2  cents  per  day  is  made  for  lunch.  The  society  operating 
the  kindergarten  is  quite  separate  from  the  corporation  owning  the 
houses. 

Six  baths  constitute  the  only  other  accessories  for  the  common  use 
of  occupants.  No  fee  is  charged  for  their  use,  and  they  are  fairly  well 
patronized.  They  are  open  Thursdays,  Fridays,  and  Saturdays  from  1 
to  8.30  p.  m. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lots  on  which  the  buildings  are  erected  was 
$29,500.  The  cost  of  buildings,  exclusive  of  lots,  was  $123,215.13.  The 
resources  available  for  this  enterprise  were  derived  from  share  capital 
to  the  extent  of  $83,075,  obtained  by  private  subscription,  and  $70,000 
was  secured  by  bond  and  mortgage,  at  4£  per  cent.  The  company  in 
its  by-laws  limits  dividends  to  4  per  cent  annually.  This  rate  has  been 
fully  earned  since  the  second  year  of  operation.  The  first  year  yielded 
-  a  net  return  of  2£  per  cent.  The  estimated  value  of  the  property  as 
it  stands  to-day  is  $160,000.  The  average  annual  cost  per  room  for 
maintenance  and  repairs  was  $14.50  during  the  last  fiscal  year.  Taxes 
on  the  property  amounted  to  $4.38  per  room.  The  company,  of  course, 
not  the  tenant,  pays  the  taxes. 

BOSTON  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  BOSTON, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

A  score  or  more  years  ago  Dr.  H.  P.  Bowditch  drew  attention  to  the 
condition  of  the  homes  of  the  poor  in  Boston,  and  urged  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  better  dwellings.  The  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company 
is  one  of  the  undertakings  which  has  sprung  from  the  humanitarian 
efforts  of  this  enlightened  man. 

In  Boston,  as  elsewhere  in  large  urban  centers,  a  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  under  which  many  of  the  poor  are  compelled  to  live  has  led 
to  the  creation  of  agencies  to  provide  better  dwellings  for  them  and 
has  powerfully  helped  in  other  ways  the  cause  of  sanitary  reform. 
Beforms  in  building  laws  and  wiser  sanitary  regulations  have  also 
come  about. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDING8. 


201 


The  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1871.  Its  object,  as  stated  in  the  act  of  incorporation,  was  to  hold  and 
improve  real  estate  in  Boston  as  homes  for  working  people  at  moderate 
cost.  Dividends  were  limited  to  7  per  cent  per  annum,  which  at  that 
time  was  not  considered  excessive  interest.  An  annual  return  was 
required  to  be  made  to  the  board  of  state  charities  of  tlie  amount  of 
capital  assessed  and  paid  in,  of  the  amount  invested  in  lands  and  build¬ 
ings,  of  income,  expenses,  and  net  profits  during  the  year.  The  act 
was  subsequently  amended  to  enable  the  corporation  to  hold  property 
to  the  amount  of  $300,000,  and  to  acquire  and  improve  real  estate  out¬ 
side  of  the  limits  of  Boston. 

The  Harrison  avenue  estate,  situated  on  Harrison  avenue,  in  the 
square  bounded  by  Harrison  avenue,  East  Lenox,  Reed,  and  Newcomb 
streets,  is  the  newest  of  all  the  property  owned  by  this  corporation, 
and  to  it,  perhaps,  the  word  model  can  best  be  applied.  These  blocks 
ought  not  to  be  classified  as  tenement  houses,  and  they  are  not  such 
in  the  sight  of  the  law,  yet  can  not  be  designated  as  model  small 
houses  under  the  previous  definition.  Houses  of  this  sort  in  England 
are  sometimes  called  cottage  flats.  Though  this  latter  term  does  not 
seem  to  fully  convey  a  description,  still,  for  lack  of  a  better  name,  it 
will  be  used. 

The  term  cottage  flat  expresses  the  idea,  because  all  of  the  necessary 
provisions  for  individual  homes  have  been  made.  The  only  difference 
is  that  these  dwellings  instead  of  being  placed  side  by  side  are  super¬ 
posed  one  above  the  other.  As  there  is  usually  but  one  tenement  on 
each  floor,  no  provisions  are  necessary  to  prevent  promiscuous  mingling 
of  occupants  upon  stairways  and  landings. 

Subletting  is  not  allowed,  so  that  the  independence  and  isolation  of 
the  individual  family  is  fully  guaranteed. 

The  total  superficial  area  of  the  lot  is  28,168  square  feet.  There  are 
four  blocks,  comprising  twenty-four  houses — two  of  eight  houses  each 
and  two  of  four  houses  each — and  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  hollow 
square.  Each  house  has  20  feet  frontage,  and  is  38  feet  in  depth. 
The  total  superficial  area  built  upon  is  18,240  square  feet.  About  35 
per  cent  of  the  lot  remains  uncovered.  The  open  space  is  in  the  form 
of  a  park  dedicated  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  There  is  a  drive¬ 
way  around  it  which  is  paved  with  asphalt.  The  remainder  is  sub¬ 
divided  into  walks  and  grassplots  planted  with  trees,  flowers,  etc.  It 
contains  seats,  and  is  used  as  a  playground  for  the  children  of  tenants. 
No  part  has  been  covered  to  serve  as  a  recreation  ground  during  rainy 
weather. 

The  buildings  are  of  three  stories,  and  30  feet  in  height.  They  are 
constructed  of  brick,  with  roofs  of  tar  and  gravel.  The  staircases  are 
made  of  wood.  There  are  no  special  arrangements  made  to  render  the  * 
buildings  absolutely  fireproof.  A  cellar  or  basement  has  been  provided 
under  the  whole  space  built  upon.  It  is  paved  in  concrete,  and  is  util- 


202  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OP  LABOR. 


ized  for  storage  of  fuel  in  a  separate  bin  for  each  tenant.  A  room, 
protected  by  a  wall,  has  been  provided  for  ashes  and  garbage.  The 
ashes  and  garbage  are  put  in  barrels  and  placed  in  this  space,  whence 
they  are  emptied  into  carts. 

The  four  corner  houses  contain  each  six  tenements  of  two  rooms  each. 
The  other  twenty  houses  contain  each  a  three-room  tenement  on  the 
first  floor  and  a  four-room  tenement  on  the  second  and  third  floors. 

Every  room  communicates,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the 
open  air.  There  is  an  open  airsliaft  on  one  side  of  each  house  and 
transoms  are  placed  over  all  the  doors.  A  skylight  is  built  above  each 
stairway.  Each  separate  lodging  has  a  water-closet  for  the  sole  use  of 
occupants,  except  in  four  corner  houses,  where  the  two  families  on  each 
landing  use  one  closet  in  common.  Water-closets  are  placed  inside  the 
building,  adjoining  the  light  shaft,  and  are  provided  with  windows 
opening  upon  the  latter.  The  system  in  use  is  the  short  hopper  chain 
flush.  Plumbing  is  carefully  put  in  and  connection  is  made  with  the 
city  sewers.  The  water  supply  is  unlimited. 

Tenants  furnish  their  own  heating.  Neither  gas  nor  electricity  is 
used  for  lighting.  Tenants  do  their  washing  in  their  own  rooms  and 
dry  the  clothes  on  the  roof,  where  supports  have  been  provided.  Ten¬ 
ants  furnish  their  own  cooking  ranges.  For  refuse  receptacles  the  com¬ 
pany  has  provided  for  each  house  three  galvanized  iron  barrels,  two  for 
ashes  and  one  for  garbage.  Each  dwelling  has  a  pantry  provided  with 
a  place  for  a  flour  barrel,  a  place  for  china,  and  drawers  for  groceries. 
In  every  kitchen  and  living  room  there  is  place  for  a  stove.  Every 
window  has  outside  shutters.  Sitting  room  walls  are  papered  and  pro¬ 
vided  with  picture  moldings.  The  latter  have  also  been  placed  in 
bedrooms.  The  rooms  are  wainscoted  in  polished  oak.  Above  this  the 
walls  are  papered.  There  is  a  glass  hall  door  in  the  front  of  each 
house.  Rules  and  regulations  have  been  neatly  framed,  and  hang  in  the 
hallway  of  the  first  floor.  Each  kitchen  has  an  iron  sink,  a  washtub  of 
soapstone  adjoining,  a  pantry,  and  a  sideboard. 

The  buildings  contain  24  two-room,  1G  three-room,  and  32  four-room 
dwellings.  The  cubic  contents  of  the  first  category  are  from  1,820  to 
1,888  feet,  of  the  second  3,445  feet,  and  of  the  third  3,861  feet.  Two- 
room  tenements  are  of  two  classes,  in  which  the  living  rooms  are  10 
feet  by  13  feet  and  9  feet  6  inches  by  13  feet,  while  the  bedrooms  are 
8  feet  by  13  feet  3  inches  and  8  feet  by  13  feet,  respectively.  In  a  three- 
room  dwelling  the  kitchen  is  10  feet  by  14  feet  8  inches,  the  living 
room  12  feet  by  15  feet,  and  the  bedroom  8  feet  by  13  feet.  In  a  four- 
room  dwelling  the  kitchen  is  10  feet  by  14  feet  8  inches,  the  living  room 
10  feet  by  15  feet,  one  bedroom  is  8  feet  by  10  feet  3  inches,  and  the 
other  8  feet  by  13  feet.  The  ceilings  are  8  feet  high  throughout. 

The  general  ground  plan  and  plan- of  basement,  and  the  first,  second, 
and  third  floor  plans  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  cuts  (plans  Nos. 
17  A  and  17  B) 


REED  STREET,  34  feet  wide. 


1ST- If 


HARRiSON  AVENUE.  60  feet  wide. 


Basement. 

HARRISON  AVENUE  ESTATE  OF  THE  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  BOSTON,  MASS.. 


EAST  LENOX  STREE  i".  40  feet  wide. 


First  floor. 


HARRISON  AVENUE  ESTATE  OF  THE  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  BOSTON, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Plan  No.  1  7  b. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


203 


The  ground  plan  of  the  property  is  shown  in  order  that  the  dis¬ 
positions  which  have  been  made  in  the  provisions  of  the  large  interior 
courtyard,  with  its  four  approaches  left  open  for  ventilation,  may  be 
fully  understood.  There  are  in  all  84  separate  dwellings,  62  of  which 
were  occupied  during  the  whole  of  the  last  fiscal  year  by  about  280 
persons. 

Rents  of  two-room  dwellings,  which  are  situated  in  the  corner  houses, 
are  $2.50  per  week  for  the  front  and  $2.25  for  the  rear;  the  three-room 
dwellings,  which  are  situated  on  the  first  floor  only,  cost  $3.25  per  week; 
the  four-room  dwellings,  which  are  situated  on  the  second  and  third 
stories,  cost  $3.75  and  $3.50  per  week,  respectively. 

The  health  of  the  tenants  during  the  last  fiscal  year  has  been  excel¬ 
lent.  Only  seven  deaths  have  occurred,  of  which  three  took  place  in 
one  family.  There  were  four  deaths  from  scarlet  fever,  one  from  cholera 
infantum,  one  from  spinal  meningitis,  and  one  from  consumption,  all  of 
children  under  8  years  of  age. 

These' buildings  were  opened  for  habitation  on  September  1,  1892. 
The  original  cost  of  the  lot  was  $16,900.20,  while  the  cost  of  the  build¬ 
ing,  parking,  etc.,  was  $100,021.61. 

The  East  Canton  street  property,  though  the  oldest  belonging  to  the 
company,  deserves  to  be  described  because  it  is  well  adapted  for  the 
purpose  of  housing  the  poor,  and  because  successful  financial  results 
have  uniformly  attended  its  administration.  No.  8  Andrew  place  is 
chosen  for  description.  The  lot  has  a  superficial  area  of  820  square  feet 
2  square  inches.  About  68  per  cent  of  it  is  built  upon. 

The  open  space  is  found  at  the  rear.  It  is  paved  with  brick,  and  is 
dedicated  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  drying 
clothes.  The  building  is  of  three  stories  and  30  feet  in  height.  It  is 
constructed  of  brick,  with  roofing  of  tar  and  gravel.  Staircases  are  of 
wood.  The  building  is  so  low  that  exit  by  windows  and  the  roof  is 
easy,  hence  no  special  means  of  escape  is  provided  in  case  of  fire.  The 
cellar  is  paved  in  concrete,  and  provided  with  bins  for  coal  and  wood. 
The  hallways,  corridors,  etc.,  are  distinctly  private  and  not  regarded 
as  prolongations  of  the  public  street.  Two  doors  from  each  family 
lodging  open  directly  upon  the  stairway  or  hallway.  Each  family  has 
a  floor  to  itself.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors 
or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  Windows  have  been  provided  for  ven¬ 
tilation  in  the  entries.  There  are  movable  transoms  over  the  doors. 
Each  family  has  a  separate  water-closet  for  its  own  use,  which  is  situ¬ 
ated  in  the  cellar.  They  are  provided  with  short  hoppers  and  are 
trapped.  The  plumbing  and  sewerage  are  in  conformity  with  the 
building  laws  of  the  city.  Laundry  work  is  done  within  the  dwelling. 
An  unlimited  supply  of  water  is  allowed.  Heating  is  done  by  stoves 
within  the  apartments,  and  lighting  with  kerosene  lamps.  Ash  barrels 
are  provided  as  garbage  receptacles.  The  interior  decorations  are  con¬ 
fined  to  mantel  and  clock  shelves.  Doorbells  exist  for  the  separate 
lodgings. 


204  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  building  provides  three  separate  dwellings.  Living  rooms  are 
11  feet  by  12  feet  2  inches,  bedrooms  7  feet  8  inches  by  13  feet  6  inches, 
and  the  kitchens  are  13  feet  6  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches.  Ceilings  are 
9  feet  high.  Dwellers  on  the  East  Canton  street  estate  are  particularly 
proud  of  their  well-kept  garden. 

This  particular  building  was  opened  for  habitation  on  April  15, 1888. 
The  original  cost  of  the  lot  was  $820  and  of  the  building  $3,000.  The 
tenements  rent  for  $130  per  year  on  the  first  story,  and  $143  each  on 
the  second  and  third  stories. 

The  first  building  owned  by  this  corporation  was  opened  for  habita¬ 
tion  in  July,  1872.  It  now  owns  five  separate  estates,  namely,  East 
Canton  street,  Tliacher  and  Endicott  streets,  Clark  street,  Phillips 
street,  and  Harrison  avenue.  The  total  number  of  rooms  in  all  the 
estates  is  960.  Separate  lodgings  are  not  sold  to  individuals  inhabit¬ 
ing  them. 

The  total  amount  of  present  share  capital  of  the  corporation  is 
$219,000,  which  has  been  derived  from  subscription.  The  amount  of 
borrowed  capital  is  now  $93,600,  which  is  secured  by  mortgages  placed 
on  the  property  of  the  corporation.  The  annual  rate  of  interest  paid 
averages  about  4|  per  cent.  A  reserve  fund,  which  is  known  as  a 
renewal  account,  amounting  to  $50,229.29,  and  which  came  from  profits, 
had  been  set  aside  up  to  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year.  Two  thou¬ 
sand  dollars  is  set  aside  annually  to  the  renewal  account,  and  this  is 
now  considered  more  than  enough  to  mark  off  depreciation  on  existing 
buildings.  The  annual  dividend  to  stockholders  during  the  last  five 
years  has  been  6  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  operations  of  the  company  during  the 
last  fiscal  year : 

REPORT  OF  THE  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  18M. 


Estate. 

Gross 

rent. 

Agent. 

Repairs. 

Water 

rates. 

Taxes. 

Care 

and 

clean¬ 

ing. 

Snn- 

dries. 

Net 

rents. 

East  Canton  street . 

$18,  622 
0,  783 
2,  031 
3, 164 
0,  006 

$693 

447 

$2,754 

508 

$738 

262 

$1, 738 
610 

$176 

2*2 

$492 

186 

$12,  031 
4,  541 
1,107 
1,  629 
6,857 

Thacher  and  Endicott  streets. ..... 

Clark  street . . . 

113 

441 

81 

181 

87 

20 

Phillip®  utreet . . . 

212 

663 

136 

192 

140 

181 

Harrison  aveniis _ .... _ 

614 

294 

427 

1,419 

80 

275 

Total . 

40, 656 

2, 070 

4,660 

1,644 

4, 140 

706 

1, 154 

26, 165 

The  total  loss  of  rentals  resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  during 
the  last  fiscal  year  was  $4,897.  The  Harrison  avenue  estate  was  largely 
responsible  for  this  unfavorable  showing.  There  out  of  84  tenements 
only  62  were  let,  resulting  in  loss  by  vacancies  of  $3,782.  The  reasons 
stated  are: 

1.  There  has  been  much  building  in  the  neighborhood  during  the  past 
three  years. 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


205 


2.  The  company  itself  built  four  very  large  blocks  at  once.  The 
possibility  of  not  being  able  to  fill  them  all  was  fully  discussed,  but  it 
was  decided  to  build  around  the  entire  square  in  order  to  give  the  estate 
an  air  of  completeness. 

3.  The  hard  times  have  affected  the  company.  About  twenty  families 
left  because  of  decreased  income,  and  one-third  of  the  present  tenants 
are  working  on  reduced  rates  or  on  half  pay. 

The  Harrison  avenue  estate  provides  for  the  best  class  of  tenants 
housed  by  the  corporation,  Thacher  and  Endicott  streets  for  a  lower, 
and  Clark  street,  Phillips  street,  and  East  Canton  street  for  a  lower 
class  still. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  possible  rental  and  the  losses 
from  vacancies  and  nonpayment  during  the  last  fiscal  year: 

RENTALS  AND  LOSSES  OF  THE  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMP  ANT,  1883. 


Estate. 

Total 

possible 

rental. 

Loss 
by  va¬ 
cancies. 

Loss  by 
non¬ 
payment. 

Total 

rent 

received. 

$19,  357 
7,  068 
2,  054 
3,545 
13,  984 

$635 

268 

12 

200 

3,782 

$100 

17 

11 

191 

236 

$18,  622 
6, 783 
2, 031 
3, 154 

8,966 

Thacher  and  Endicott  streets . 

Total . 

46, 008 

A  897 

555 

40,  556 

The  total  estimated  value  of  lands  and  buildings  belonging  to  the 
corporation  is  now  $350,326.54. 

Rents  are  paid  weekly  in  advance.  In  some  properties  they  are 
called  for  by  an  authorized  agent  of  the  company,  and  in  othfrs  they 
are  paid  by  the  tenant  at  the  office.  One  week’s  notice  is  required  of 
intention  to  quit.  There  is  no  general  rule  for  dealing  with  arrearages, 
each  case  being  judged  on  its  merits.  The  total  sum  lost  through  non¬ 
payment  of  rents  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  $555.  It  would  not 
be  fair,  however,  to  take  this  result  for  1893  as  an  average,  for  the 
reason  that  unfavorable  financial  conditions  caused  a  great  deal  of 
distress  among  workingmen  rent  payers.  Rentals  have  advanced  in 
estates  situated  at  the  north  end  of  Boston,  as  there  are  more  people 
looking  for  house  accommodation  in  that  section  than  can  be  supplied. 
Immigration  has  had  considerable  to  do  with  this  state  of  affairs.  The 
rentals  in  other  estates  have  remained  stationary.  It  is  the  aim  of  the 
corporation  to  make  the  rental  of  its  property  conform  strictly  to 
market  rates.  It  is  said  that  about  25  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  heads 
of  families  among  the  company’s  tenants  goes  for  rent. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  statement  in  the  last  annual  report  of 
the  company  in  reference  to  duration  of  tenancy.  It  appears  that  the 
number  of  families  who  have  lived  in  the  East  Canton  street  estate, 
the  oldest  of  the  company’s  properties,  and  the  only  one  for  which  the 
reconi  has  been  compiled,  is  as  follows :  11  for  five  years ;  6  for  six 


206  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


years;  5  for  seven  years;  5  for  eight  years;  3  for  nine  years;  1  for  ten 
years;  4  for  eleven  years;  1  for  twelve  years;  3  for  fourteen  years;  5 
for  fifteen  years;  5  for  seventeen  years;  2  for  eighteen  years;  2  for 
nineteen  years;  6  for  twenty  years;  2  for  twenty-one  years;  a  total  of 
61  families.  In  addition,  31  families  have  been  tenants  during  periods 
of  from  two  to  five  years,  making  92  families,  or  nearly  two-tliirds  of 
the  total  number,  who  may  be  classified  as  permanent  tenants.  “The 
remaining  third,”  says  the  report,  “is  composed  of  those  who  change 
their  lodgings  often,  and  cause  our  agent  much  care  and  labor.  As 
a  rule,  sickness,  drinking,  or  laziness,  with  very  little  sense  of  respon¬ 
sibility  to  their  landlord,  marks  this  class.” 

The  following  table  of  occupancy  may  not  be  without  interest : 

TENANTS  AND  WEEKLY  KENTS  OF  TENEMENTS  OF  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE 

BUILDING  COMPANY. 


Street. 

Houses. 

Condition. 

Rooms. 

Families. 

Persons. 

Weekly 
rent  per 
room. 

18 

Old . 

236 

79 

279 

#0.  91* 

4 

Old . 

56 

23 

57 

.  78* 

2 

Old . 

28 

9 

39 

.754 

3 

Old . 

34 

11 

37 

.89J 

2 

24 

12 

28 

1. 08J 

Andrew  place,  4,  6,  8 . ? 

Andrew  place,  10, 12 . 5 

5 

New . 

39 

15 

53 

.92J 

Clark . 

5 

Old  wooden... 

52 

17 

67 

.67 

1 

Old  brick . 

39 

13 

44 

.80 

1 

Old  brick . 

24 

10 

38 

.87 

Thacher,  19 . . . 

1 

Old  brick _ 

21 

8 

21 

.85 

Thacher,  15 . 

1 

New  brick. ... 

23 

9 

50 

1. 05J 

Thacher,  13 . 

1 

New  brick.... 

30 

15 

45 

1. 16 

Phillips,  72,  80 . 

8 

Old,  7  wooden. 

86 

33 

77 

.68 

Harrison  avenue . : . 

24 

New . 

268 

62 

240 

.98 

As  regards  the  nationalities  of  heads  of  families  the  Irish  consider¬ 
ably  predominate.  The  tenants  in  the  Harrison  avenue  estate  are 
chiefly  carpenters  and  clerks,  with  some  engineers,  molders,  and  other 
mechanics.  In  the  East  Canton  estate  20  per  cent  are  laborers  em¬ 
ployed  by  the  municipality,  whose  work  is  rather  irregular.  In  pros¬ 
perous  times  they  earn  from  $10  to  $15  per  week.  Other  inhabitants 
are  generally  stablemen,  teamsters,  stonecutters,  and  wood  sawyers. 
In  Thacherand  Endicott  streets  the  chief  occupations  represented  are 
fishermen,  barbers,  peddlers,  and  longshoremen. 

Tenants  are  not  allowed  to  sublet  their  lodgings,  and  only  under 
exceptional  circumstances  are  they  permitted  to  take  boarders.  Pro¬ 
spective  tenants  make  personal  application  and  give  references.  If 
accepted  they  are  not  required  to  sign  a  lease.  The  following  regula¬ 
tions  to  be  observed  by  tenants,  though  pertaining  particularly  to  one 
of  the  estates,  are  practically  applicable  to  all. 

These  houses  have  been  built  with  the  view  of  securing  in  everyway 
the  comfort  of  the  tenants.  In  return  the  company  require  that  they 
should  be  kept  in  the  highest  degree  of  neatness. 

Each  tenant  will  be  expected  to  take  care  of  his  or  her  own  entry  and 
the  stairs  below.  The  tenant  on  the  lowest  floor  will  take  care  of  the 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


207 


front  steps  also.  The  tenants  will  take  turns  in  the  care  of  the  s  de¬ 
walk,  and  when  getting  in  coal  or  wood  clean  the  sidewalk  and  snut 
the  cellar  windows.  Also  will  take  turns  in  cleaning  the  cellar  and  the 
stairs  leading  to  the  roof. 

All  swill  and  ashes  shall  be  put  dry  into  their  respective  places  in  the 
yard,  and  the  tenauts  are  particularly  requested  not  to  mistake  the  ash 
for  the  swill  place. 

No  refuse  of  any  kind,  coarse  paper  or  rags,  not  even  a  match,  shall 
be  thrown  into  the  water-closets. 

Any  damage  done  by  a  tenant  is  to  be  made  good  at  his  or  her  expense. 

It  is  forbidden  to  deface  the  walls  or  floors  by  cutting  or  writing  on 
the  woodwork,  scraping  matches,  driving  nails,  or  spitting.  Splitting 
wood  in  the  apartments  is  strictly  forbidden. 

No  lines,  cloths,  or  clothes  to  be  hung  from  the  windows,  either  back 
or  front.  No  mats  or  clothes  are  to  be  shaken  from  the  windows,  nor 
any  refuse  matter  to  be  thrown  into  the  yards. 

All  clotheslines  must  be  taken  down  after  using,  either  on  the  sheds 
or  in  the  yards. 

All  front  doors  must  be  shut  at  10  o’clock,  after  that  tenants  will  come 
in  wffth  latchkeys. 

No  dogs  or  cats  will  be  allowed  in  the  houses,  unless  by  special  per¬ 
mission  of  the  agent. 

No  signs  are  allowed  to  be  put  on  the  houses  without  permission. 

Satisfactory  references  will  be  required. 

The  rent  must  be  paid  weekly  in  advance. 

The  tenancy  may  be  terminated  by  either  party  on  one  week’s  notice. 

No  tenant  can  underlet  rooms  or  take  boarders  or  lodgers  without 
special  permission. 

No  tenant  will  be  admitted  whose  family  have  not  all  been  vaccinated. 

Any  questions  that  arise  are  to  be  referred  to  the  agent. 

These  rules  will  be  strictly  enforced,  by  the  order  of  the  directors. 

The  management  of  each  separate  estate,  it  must  not  be  forgotten, 
is  confided  to  a  committee  composed  of  ladies.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtful 
if  equally  successful  results,  computable  from  the  economic,  but 
immeasurable  from  the  moral  and  ethical  points  of  view,  would  have 
been  attained  had  not  the  cooperation  of  kind-hearted  but  sagacious 
and  good  business  women  been  secured.  Seventeen  persons  compose 
the  committees  of  management  of  the  five  different  estates,  and  of 
these  eight  are  well-known  Boston  ladies.  Lady  agents  are  in  charge 
of  all  the  estates,  and  attend  to  the  good  order  and  general  manage¬ 
ment  of  the  property. 

IMPROVED  DWELLINGS  ASSOCIATION,  BOSTON, 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building,  which  is  chosen  for  description, 
is  located  at  the  corner  of  West  Second  and  Athens  streets,  South 
Boston.  This  is  the  first  of  the  association’s  experiments  in  building 
improved  tenements  in  the  southern  part  of  the  city.  The  situation 
was  not  a  particularly  bad  one,  though  in  a  dangerous  quarter.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  neighborhood  were  of  a  very  low  class, 
and  the  buildings  were  old  and  dilapidated.  It  wis  a  center  for  young 


208  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


men  known  as  roughs  or  toughs.  It  was  the  situation  of  the  place 
with  reference  to  transportation,  convenience,  and  facility  of  access 
which  ultimately  induced  the  association  to  try  what  was  at  best  a  pre¬ 
carious  experiment.  Dorchester  avenue,  Broadway,  and  Dover  street 
extension  were  not  far  off,  and  the  locality  was  not  more  than  twenty 
minutes’  walk  from  the  post  office.  In  spite  of  the  drawbacks,  the  build¬ 
ing  slowly  gained  a  respectable  class  of  occupants.  Great  care  was, 
of  course,  exercised  in  the  choice  of  tenants,  and  the  association  was 
obliged  to  leave  many  tenements  vacant  during  a  large  part  of  the 
year,  with  a  resulting  loss  of  income,  in  order  to  make  sure  of  getting 
a  fair  class  of  occupants.  The  wisdom  of  this  policy  has  been  justified, 
and  the  agent  in  referring  to  the  matter  says:  “The  house  is  now  well 
tenanted  so  far  as  respectability  and  temperance  are  concerned,  and 
every  good  family  is  a  guarantee  of  more.”  The  building  is  situated 
between  two  streets,  fronting  on  West  Second  street,  a  thoroughfare  50 
feet  wide.  The  total  superficial  area  of  the  lot  is  10,336  square  feet. 
A  generous  portion  of  it  has  not  been  built  upon.  In  the  rear  is  a  large 
playground,  and  a  large  space  on  one  side  of  the  building  has  been  left 
open  on  which  children  are  allowed  to  play.  The  association  offered 
this  open  lot  to  the  city  at  cost  price  provided  it  be  occupied  as  a  per¬ 
manent  open  space.  No  action  has  yet  been  taken.  The  Children’s 
Aid  Society,  however,  fitted  up  the  space  as  a  small  park,  and  children 
of  the  neighborhood  can  come  in  and  play  so  long  as  they  maintain 
orderly  conduct.  The  arrangement  was  tried,  in  the  first  instance,  of 
giving  the  children  the  cellar  to  play  in  on  rainy  days,  but  the  privilege 
was  abused,  and  efforts  were  therefore  made  to  induce  each  family  to 
keep  the  boys  in  the  house,  especially  in  the  evening.  Since  that  time 
there  has  not  been  so  much  trouble. 

The  building  is  four  stories  high  and  is  built  of  brick.  There  is  a 
gravel  roof  with  rough  board  walks.  Stairways  are  constructed  com¬ 
pletely  of  iron  with  iron  railings  and  are  surrounded  by  brick  walls. 
The  iron  stairways  and  the  concrete  floors  in  the  main  corridors  and 
water-closets  represent  the  special  precautions  that  have  been  taken  to 
make  the  building  fireproof.  Balconies  also  connect  the  different  sec¬ 
tions  of  the  house,  and  there  are  fire  escapes  as  required  by  law. 
There  is  a  cellar  paved  in  cement  and  divided  into  compartments  for 
fuel  and  other  storage.  Each  tenant  has  a  separate  space.  A  base¬ 
ment  dwelling  has  been  fitted  up  for  the  care-taker.  There  are  sky¬ 
lights  over  the  staircases  which  extend  to  the  roof. 

^Reference  to  the  accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  18)  will  furnish  an 
idea  of  the  interior  arrangements.  As  a  rule  only  one  door  from  the 
family  lodging  opens  directly  upon  the  hallway.  No  special  arrange 
ments  have  been  made  to  prevent  promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants- 
upon  stairways  or  hallways,  or  otherwise  to  preserve  the  isolation  of 
the  individual  family. 


SECOND  STREET. 

First  floor. 

RUFUS  ELLIS  MEMORIAL  BUILDING,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS. 
Plan  No.  1  8. 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


209 


Every  room  communicates  directly  with  the  open  air.  There  are 
transoms  over  the  doors  opening  to  the  corridors,  and  rooms  not  com¬ 
municating  by  doors  with  the  corridors  have  windows  opening  to  them. 
Water-closets  exist  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  each  two  families.  They 
are  placed  inside  and  have  been  provided  each  with  an  automatic  flush 
and  are  ventilated  by  transoms  and  a  special  airshaft.  There  is  an  iron 
sink  and  a  large  pantry  in  every  kitchen.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water 
is  allowed.  A  stove  in  the  cellar  heats  the  halls  and  keeps  the  water 
pipes  from  freezing.  Halls  are  lighted  by  gas.  Washing  is  done  in 
the  apartments  and  drying  on  the  roof,  wooden  frames  for  hanging 
clothes  being  provided.  The  front  steps  on  the  first  floor  are  of  iron 
with  glass  bull’s-eyes,  serving  to  light  up  the  cellar  space. 

No  cooking  ranges  have  been  put  in  by  the  association.  Barrels  in 
the  courtyards  serve  for  the  garbage  receptacles.  There  are  shelves  in 
bedrooms,  but  no  clothespresses.  Chopping  blocks  have  been  placed  in 
the  cellar  for  the  convenience  of  the  tenants  in  splitting  wood.  There 
is  a  wainscoting  of  wood  in  the  hallways  and  kitchen.  Bedrooms  have 
chair  boards  on  the  walls. 

The  prevailing  size  of  one- room  tenements  is  14  feet  by  11  feet.  In 
two  room  tenements  the  kitchens  are  about  10  feet  by  13  feet  and  the 
bedrooms  7  or  8  feet  by  14  feet.  In  the  average  sized  three-room  tene¬ 
ments  kitchens  are  10  feet  by  13  to  14  feet,  bedrooms  8  feet  by  12  feet, 
8  feet  by  15  feet,  7  feet  by  14  feet,  and  6  feet  6  inches  by  14  feet.  Some 
of  the  tenements  are  larger.  There  are  4  four-room  tenements,  which 
in  reality  are  double  two-room  apartments  and  may  be  so  divided. 
Here  the  kitchen  is  10  feet  by  14  feet,  with  a  bedroom  of  the  same  size. 
The  two  other  bedrooms  are  8  feet  by  14  feet  each.  Ceilings  are  8  feet 
6  inches  high  in  all  the  stories. 

Fifty-six  families  occupied  the  building  during  the  last  fiscal  year. 
There  have  been  no  epidemics  in  the  building,  and  in  1891,  when 
typhoid  fever  and  general  sickness  prevailed  in  South  Boston,  only  two 
cases  of  slight  illness  were  reported. 

The  total  sum  received  for  rent  during  the  last  fiscal  year  (1893)  was 
$4,521.70.  The  one-room  tenements  rent  for  $1  to  $1.10  per  week  in 
the  first  three  stories  and  $1  in  the  fourth  story;  two-room  tenements 
vary  from  $1.50  to  $1.80;  three- room  tenements  vary  from  $1  to  $2.50; 
four-room  tenements  vary  from  $2.75  to  $3.30.  Three  room  tenements 
renting  at  $1  per  week  are  not  desirably  located.  The  Kufus  Ellis 
Memorial  tenement  building  is  the  only  model  tenement  structure 
owned  by  this  association.  It  has  some  other  property,  which  is  not 
considered  model. 

The  building  was  opened  for  habitation  December  1, 1888.  The  orig¬ 
inal  cost  of  the  lot  was  $10,500,  and  of  the  building,  exclusive  of  land, 
$50,442.81.  The  capital  stock  of  the  association  is  $100,000.  The 
average  annual  dividend  paid  since  its  formation  has  been  4  per  cent. 
In  addition,  from  1£  to  1£  per  cent  has  annually  been  set  aside  for 
H.  Ex.  354 - 14 


210  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


reserve  and  invested  in  another  estate.  The  total  amount  of  borrowed 
capital  is  $17,000,  upon  which  4  per  cent  interest  is  paid.  The  money 
has  been  borrowed  on  mortgages.  Taxes  paid  for  the  Rufus  Ellis 
Memorial  building  in  1893  amounted  to  $678.40.  The  total  estimated 
value  of  the  property  of  the  association  is  $120,687.04.  The  gross 
rental  for  the  fiscal  year  1893  was  $10,249.90. 

The  average  number  of  vacancies  has  been  few.  Rents  are  paid 
weekly  in  advance,  and  are  called  for  by  a  lady  agent.  If  tenants  are 
out  of  work  and  worthy  three  weeks’  arrearages,  in  exceptional  cases, 
are  allowed.  Tenants  almost  invariably  do  not  pay  the  last  week’s  rent 
before  moving  out.  The  total  sum  lost  from  unpaid  rents  during  the  last 
fiscal  year  (1893)  was  $96.75  for  the  Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building.  Five 
hundred  and  five  dollars  were  lost  in  the  same  building  on  account  of 
vacancies."  Rentals  have  declined  10,  15,  and  20  per  cent,  according 
to  classification  of  apartments.  The  reason  for  the  decline  is  that  one 
of  the  streets  is  noisy  and  does  not  furnish  a  desirable  outlook.  In 
other  cases  rents  were  reduced  because  desirable  tenants  were  unable 
to  pay  more,  and  others,  having  learned  of  the  fact,  insisted  upon  a 
like  favor  being  accorded  to  them.  The  price  now  paid  is  about  7  cents 
per  room  higher  than  for  frame  houses  in  the  neighborhood.  No  com¬ 
parison  can  really  be  made  on  the  basis  of  equal  accommodations, 
because  equally  good  apartments  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood. 

The  following  table  gives  the  occupations  and  earnings  of  heads  of 
tenant  families  in  the  Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building: 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  AVERAGE  WEEKLY  EARNINGS  OF  TENANTS  OF  RUFUS  ELLIS 

MEMORIAL  BUILDING. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average  weekly 
earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average  weekly 
earnings. 

Nnrse . 

1 

Photographer’s  assist- 

1 

$8.  00 

2 

Freight  handler . 

1 

9.  00 

Employee,  bag  factory . 

1 

6 

10.  50  to  12.  00 

1 

2 

12.  00 

2 

4 

8.  00 

4 

$3.  00  to  4. 00 

1 

! 

1 

3 

10.  00 

1 

l1 

W  aiter . 

1 

1 

7 

2 

Carriflorfi  smith _ 

1 

15.  00 

1 

1 

3 

5.  00 

Pishermen . 

2 

1 

18.  00 

1 

Hostlers . 

7 

9. 00 

Laborer,  sewer  depart- 

Printer . 

1 

ment . 

1 

5 

10.  50 

1 

1 

"Rartemler _  _ _ 

1 

Clerk . 

1 

_ _  _  Pavers _ 

3 

12. 00 

Employees,  sugar  factory 

2 

9.  00  to  10. 00 

The  officers  of  the  association  beh'eve  that  from  17  to  20  per  cent  of 
the  earnings  of  their  tenants  go  to  pay  rent.  Tenants  may  not  sublet 
or  receive  boarders  except  with  special  permission.  No  formal  lease 
is  entered  into.  The  rules  and  regulations  are  printed  upon  the  cover 
of  the  receipt  book  which  each  tenant  receives.  An  extra  charge  of 
50  cents  is  made  upon  the  beginning  of  the  tenancy.  This  is  returned 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  211 

when  tenants  leave,  provided  they  hand  back  their  keys  and  leave 
the  rooms  clean. 

Stairs  and  entries  must  be  swept  every  morning,  and  the  latter 
scrubbed  once  a  week  by  each  tenant  in  turn.  The  care  of  water- 
closets  is  left  to  the  tenants,  who  must  scrub  them  twice  a  week.  Out¬ 
side  doors  are  locked  at  10  o’clock  in  the  evening,  and  after  that  hour 
a  latchkey  must  be  used.  Children  are  prohibited  lrom  playing  on  the 
roof,  balconies,  stairs,  or  in  the  cellars.  Disorderly  or  intoxicated  ten¬ 
ants  are  expelled  at  once. 

The  Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building  is  in  charge  of  a  care-taker,  a 
woman  who,  with  her  husband  and  child,  lives  on  the  premises.  The 
general  supervision  of  this  and  the  other  estates  is  confided  to  the 
lady  agent,  who  visits  the  buildings  three  times  a  week,  collects  the 
rents,  receives  complaints,  notes  all  repairs  needed,  etc. 

The  property  of  this  association  is  well  situated  as  regards  proximity 
to  places  of  work  for  its  tenants.  They  are  about  twenty  minutes’ 
walk  from  the  business  center.  Rapid  transit  communication  exists 
for  those  who  desire  to  ride.  The  great  bulk  of  tenants  are  employed 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  their  residences. 

The  Children’s  Aid  Society  has  established  a  library  in  the  building 
and  appoints  resident  children  as  librarians.  The  occupants  of  the 
Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building  have  been  kindly  remembered  by  out¬ 
side  agencies.  A  home  library  was  donated  in  1890  by  a  philanthropic 
lady.  The  “Country  Week  Society”  has  extended  its  operations  to 
the  occupants  of  the  building,  and  car  and  steamboat  rides  have  been 
furnished  by  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Union.  The  report  of  the 
agent  for  1892  states  that  the  rules  of  the  house  have  been  generally 
observed,  new  tenants,  stimulated  by  the  example  of  the  regular  occu¬ 
pants,  readily  falling  into  line.  The  principal  trouble  came  from  the 
children,  especially  from  the  boys.  What  they  seemed  to  lack  was 
interesting  occupation  for  their  spare  hours,  and  the  suggestion  was 
made  that  a  free  industrial  school  could  be  opened  in  the  neighborhood 
with  great  profit.  The  association  has  recently  opened  a  playground 
for  children  under  10  years  of  age  in  the  free  space  immediately 
adjoining  the  building. 

It  is  an  unquestioned  fact  that  the  location  of  this  model  building 
has  been  productive  of  great  benefit  to  the  neighborhood;  but  greater 
employment  for  the  spare  energies  of  the  younger  inhabitants  seems 
now  to  be  the  most  urgent  need  in  order  to  fully  establish  the  useful 

work. 

BUNKER  HILL  TERRACES,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

An  account  of  model  housing  in  Boston  would  not  be  complete  with¬ 
out  reference  to  the  very  interesting  enterprise  of  James  W.  Tufts,  in 
Charlestown.  When  this  locality  was  visited  in  December,  1893,  the 
buildings  had  not  been  completed,  and  therefore  financial  returns  can 


212  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


not  be  given;  but  a  sketch  of  the  buildings,  together  with  plans  and  some 
statements  in  reference  to  rents  and  probable  results,  is  appended. 

The  buildings  are  situated  on  Tufts  street,  near  Bunker  Hill.  The 
frontage  of  the  lot  is  230  feet,  and  the  depth  98  feet  at  one  end  and 
104  feet  at  the  other.  Almost  half  of  the  ground  is  covered  with  the  two 
buildings,  each  of  which  has  a  frontage  of  105  feet.  They  are  separated 
by  a  driveway  20  feet  wide.  A  portion  of  the  rear  space  is  occupied  by 
an  annex,  which  is  142  feet  by  21  feet.  The  open  space  is  in  the  form  of  a 
yard  between  the  tenement  buildings  proper  and  the  annex.  It  is  paved 
with  blue  gravel.  In  the  center  is  a  grass  plot.  The  space  is  reserved 
entirely  for  the  free  use  of  occupants  and  for  a  drying  ground  for  clothes. 
No  provision  is  made  in  the  way  of  a  covered  space  for  recreation  ground 
for  children  in  rainy  weather.  The  buildings,  which  are  of  brick,  com¬ 
prise  four  stories  and  are  46  feet  high.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior 
walls  is  12  inches.  The  roof  is  of  tar  and  gravel  and  has  a  wooden 
walk.  Stairways  are  constructed  of  wood,  and  are  surrounded  by  brick 
walls.  These,  with  four  party  walls,  which  separate  each  building  into 
five  distinct  sections,  and  fire  escapes  in  the  rear,  accessible  to  all  ten¬ 
ants,  furnish  the  amplest  provision  against  danger  from  fire.  There  is 
a  storage  cellar  to  the  buildings,  paved  with  3  inches  of  concrete,  then 
four  sheets  of  tar  paper,  and  12  inches  of  concrete  on  the  tar  paper. 
The  paving  of  the  cellar  alone  cost  $5,000,  and  every  effort  has  been 
made  to  make  it  absolutely  proof  against  dampness.  On  the  first  floor 
the  hallways  extend  from  front  to  rear,  except  in  the  houses  next  the 
driveway  to  the  court,  and  are  6  feet  wide  at  the  front  and  4  feet  at 
the  back.  Two  sets  of  glass  doors  in  front,  5  feet  apart,  form  a  vesti¬ 
bule  in  each  house.  Glass  doors  are  also  used  at  the  rear  entrance  to 
the  halls.  The  doors  are  artistically  made,  and  stained  glass  has  been 
used.  The  first  floor  hallways  communicate  with  the  stairways,  which 
are  in  the  middle  of  the  building.  The  staircase  shafts  are  about  8 
feet  square,  and  have  an  open  space  about  2  feet  by  3  feet,  extending 
from  the  ground  floor  to  the  roof.  There  is  a  ventilator  at  the  top  of 
the  staircase,  and  ventilation  is  also  afforded  from  light  wells,  which 
extend  to  the  roof.  There  will  be,  as  a  rule,  two  families  to  one  staircase 
landing  where  there  are  one  and  two-room  tenements,  and  one  family 
to  a  landing  in  the  case  of  four-room  tenements.  Every  room  commu¬ 
nicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  Four- 
room  tenements  have  through  circulation  from  front  to  rear,  but  other 
tenements  get  ventilation  on  one  side  from  the  staircase  shaft  and  on  the 
other  from  the  street  or  court.  Each  of  the  four-room  tenements  has 
one  water-closet;  the  others  have  one  for  two  families.  Water-closets 
are  situated  inside  the  buildings,  and  are  ventilated  by  the  air  from  the 
light  wells  adjoining.  The  automatic  flushing  apparatus  is  used.  Each 
building  has  two  soil  pipes  extending  from  the  roof  to  the  cellar  which 
connect  separately  with  the  sewer.  The  yard  has  catch-basins,  and 
these  and  all  conductors  and  areas  communicate  directly  with  the 


BUNKER  HILL  TERRACES,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Plan  No.  19  a. 


nut  ucapc 


ro 


i 


i 


BUNKER  HILL  TERRACES,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS. 


Basement. 

BUNKER  HILL  TERRACES,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS -REAR  BLOCK. 

Plan  No.  19  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


213 


sewer.  An  unlimited  quantity  of  water  will  be  allowed  each  tenement 
per  day.  Tenants  will  provide  their  own  heating.  Each  of  the  forty- 
eight  landings  has  an  electric  incandescent  lamp.  There  is  an  electric 
arc  lamp  in  the  courtyard.  No  cooking  range  is  provided  by  the  pro¬ 
prietor.  Fuel  storage  consists  of  a  bin  for  each  tenant  in  the  cellar. 
Closed  receptacles  for  ashes  and  garbage  are  placed  in  the  courtyard. 
Every  kitchen  has  a  hanging  wall  table,  an  iron  sink,  a  fixed  washtub 
made  of  slate,  a  pantry,  and  a  dresser.  Nearly  all  the  rooms  have  clothes- 
presses.  There  are  no  fireplaces,  but  every  room  is  connected  directly 
with  a  chimney.  Molding  for  hanging  pictures  is  fixed  to  the  walls  of 
living  rooms  and  bedrooms.  There  are  practically  no  other  interior 
decorations  worthy  of  mention,  except  a  high  wainscoting  in  the  kitchen. 

The  exterior  of  the  buildings  presents  a  very  plain  appearance. 
Reference  to  the  accompanying  sketch  and  plans  (plans  Nos.  19  A,  19  B, 
and  19  C)  will  make  clear  the  character  of  the  buildings  and  the  dispo¬ 
sition  of  the  different  tenements. 

The  buildings  contain  in  all  12  one-room  tenements,  38  two-room  tene¬ 
ments,  3  three-room  tenements,  and  15  four-room  tenements.  The  size 
of  one-room  tenements  is  about  15  feet  by  14  feet.  In  two-room  tene¬ 
ments  the  size  of  the  different  rooms  varies  somewhat,  the  largest  living 
room  being  15  feet  by  14  feet  and  the  smallest  10  feet  10  inches  by  14 
feet  10  inches;  the  largest  bedroom  is  15  feet  by  13  feet  5  inches  and 
the  smallest  8  feet  by  14  feet.  In  three-room  tenements  the  living  room 
is  13  feet  3  inches  by  12  feet  and  the  bedrooms  each  10  feet  by  8  feet 
8  inches.  In  four-room  tenements,  with  one  exception,  the  living  rooms 
are  11  feet  1  inch  by  14  feet  10  inches;  the  bedrooms  are  8  feet  by  14 
feet  10  inches,  8  feet  by  15  feet,  and  11  feet  1  inch  by  15  feet,  respec¬ 
tively.  The  ceilings  are  8  feet  9  inches  throughout. 

One-room  tenements  will  rent  at  $1.40  and  $1.50  per  week;  two-room 
tenements  from  $1.80  to  $2.20  per  week;  three-room  tenements  at  $2.75 
per  week;  four-room  tenements  from  $3.30  to  $3.00  per  week,  with  the 
exception  of  one  smaller  tenement  of  this  kind,  which  will  rent  for  $2.60. 

Rents  will  be  required  to  be  paid  weekly  in  advance  at  the  office  of 
the  agent  in  the  buildings.  No  form  of  lease  will  be  required,  but  ten¬ 
ants  will  have  to  signify  their  acceptance  of  the  regulations  as  a  condi¬ 
tion  of  tenancy. 

The  land  was  recently  bought,  and  cost,  approximately,  $1 0,000.  The 
cost  of  construction  has  been  $90,000.  The  enterprise  is  entirely  an  indi¬ 
vidual  undertaking.  Mr.  Tufts  considers  it  a  business  venture,  and 
expects  to  realize  a  net  profit  of  about  6  per  cent  on  his  investment. 

Social  institutions  will  have  their  homes  in  the  annex  at  the  rear  of 
the  two  main  buildings.  There  will  be,  first  of  all,  a  restaurant  in  which 
plain  meals  will  be  served,  and  where  food  for  families  will  be  supplied 
at  low  prices.  Second,  a  women’s  room,  which  will  be  devoted  to  the 
use  of  evening  classes  for  teaching  dressmaking,  millinery,  cooking, etc., 
under  the  superintendence  of  competent  teachers.  Small  tuition  fe« 


214  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


will  be  charged  for  each  class.  Free  day  and  evening  classes  will  also 
be  organized  for  children  of  tenants.  Third,  a  men’s  clubroom,  which 
will  be  kept  and  maintained  by  its  members,  and  will  be  used  as  a  social 
resort  for  reading,  smoking,  and  other  legitimate  purposes  of  rest  and 
recreation.  Membership  will  be  restricted  to  persons  of  18  years  of  age 
and  upward.  Small  monthly  fees  will  form  the  only  resources.  If  found 
practicable,  a  summer  adjunct  to  the  clubroom  will  be  arranged  upon 
the  roof  of  the  building.  Fourth,  a  day  nursery,  which  will  occupy  six 
rooms,  and  is  designed  to  take  care  of  the  children  of  women  who  are 
obliged  to  support  their  families  by  working  outside  their  homes. 
Children  from  6  months  to  C  years  of  age  will  be  received.  The  nurs¬ 
ery  will  be  open  between  7  a.  m.  and  6  p.  in.  Children  of  prox>er  age 
will  be  taken  to  the  neighboring  kindergarten  and  called  for  at  the  close 
of  its  sessions.  Proper  food  will  be  given  to  the  children,  and  they 
will  have  the  care  of  a  competent  matron  and  her  assistants.  A  daily 
fee  of  5  cents  will  be  charged  for  each  child.  The  large  double  rooms  on 
the  lower  floor,  which  in  the  daytime  are  to  be  used  for  nursery  pur¬ 
poses,  will  in  the  evening  be  available  for  entertainments  and  social 
gatherings.  Fifth,  bathrooms,  with  shower  and  tub  baths,  are  provided 
for  men,  women,  and  children.  Men  furnishing  their  own  soap  and 
towels  will  be  asked  to  pay  10  cents,  while  women  and  children,  with 
similar  accessories,  will  need  pay  only  5  cents.  It  is  difficult  to  see 
why  this  discrimination  is  to  be  made  between  sexes  and  ages  as 
regards  the  price  of  a  bath.  If  it  is  conceived  that  men  work  at  occu¬ 
pations  where  they  are  more  liable  to  become  dirty,  regard  for  hygiene 
would  dictate  the  imposition  of  a  very  small  fee,  in  order  that  frequent 
bathing  might  be  encouraged.  If  it  is  conceived  that  the  men  earn 
more,  and  are  consequently  better  able  to  pay  for  it,  then  bathing  must 
be  regarded  as  a  luxury  rather  than  as  a  necessary  convenience.  Sixth, 
a  laundry,  which  is  located  in  the  basement  and  may  be  engaged  by 
tenants  tor  given  hours  each  week.  It  is  supplied  with  hot  water  and 
wash  boilers.  A  fee  of  5  cents  for  two  hours,  which  will  include  fuel 
and  boiler,  will  be  charged. 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

This  company,  which  has  had  such  a  long  and  honorable  record,  was 
founded  through  the  efforts  of  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow,  its  present  presi¬ 
dent.  It  houses  probably  a  larger  number  of  families  than  any  other 
existing  agency. 

^  From  its  many  properties  the  Marlborough  buildings,  Walton  street, 
South  Kensington,  are  selected  for  special  description.  The  frontage 
of  the  lot  upon  which  the  model  tenements  have  been  constructed  is 
about  loO  feet  and  the  depth  about  290  feet.  Upon  this  ground  two 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  215 

parallel  rows  of  buildings,  facing  each  other,  have  been  constructed, 
each  240  feet  long  and  about  40  feet  deep.  A  space  40  feet  wide  sepa¬ 
rates  these  two  rows.  The  center  of  this  space  forms  a  playground  for 
children,  where  a  rowr  of  trees  has  been  planted.  Seats  are  also 
arranged  around  the  trees,  and  three  gas  lamps  have  been  placed  at 
intervals.  This  open  space  is  partially  paved  with  a  mixture  of  tar, 
pitch,  and  stone.  A  narrow  passageway  also  extends  along  the  rear  of 
each  row  of  buildings.  A  garden  30  feet  by  45  feet  has  been  laid  out  at 
the  end  of  the  row.  All  open  space  is  given  up  entirely  to  the  free  use 
of  occupants,  but  no  part  of  it  is  covered  to  serve  as  a  recreation  ground 
in  rainy  weather.  The  buildings  are  six  stories  high  and  built  of  brick. 
The  roof  is  of  asphalt,  with  an  iron  railing  extending  around  it  to  pre¬ 
vent  accidents.  The  staircases  are  3  feet  1  incli  wide,  and  are  made 
of  a  mixture  of  cement,  ashes,  and  cinders.  The  steps  are  grooved  so 
as  to  prevent  slipping.  The  sides  are  made  of  Portland  cement  and 
sand.  The  ground  door  in  one  row  of  buildings  is  reached  by  going 
down  a  few  steps  from  the  front  entrance,  but  is  even  with  the  ground 
at  the  back.  This  is  the  only  thing  approaching  a  basement  which  the 
buildings  contain.  The  tenements  are  entirely  self-contained,  and  a 
single  door  furnishes  the  entrance  to  the  family  lodgings.  There  are 
only  two  tenements  opening  upon  each  landing,  so  that  independence 
and  isolation  of  the  individual  family  are  well  secured.  Every  room 
communicates  directly  with  the  open  air.  A  register  for  ventilation 
has  been  placed  above  each  fireplace.  Transoms  are  found  over  all  the 
doors.  The  windows  in  bedrooms  are  5  feet  G  inches  by  4  feet,  and  the 
doors  are  6  feet  4  inches  by  2  feet  5  inches.  There  are  special  flues  for 
the  ventilation  of  rooms.  Besides  these  there  is  a  soil  pipe,  carried 
several  feet  above  the  roof,  and  two  sink  pipes,  also  carried  above  the 
roof,  for  each  section  of  the  buildings.  Water-closets  are  inside  the 
lodgings,  there  being  one  for  the  sole  use  of  each  family.  The  system 
in  use  is  an  overhead  flush  tank.  All  soil  pipes  are  placed  outside  the 
buildings,  but  water  pipes  are  inside.  The  sewer  is  18  inches  below 
the  surface  at  the  foot  of  the  buildings,  and  is  placed  to  give  a  fall  of  4 
feet  to  the  other  end.  There  are  three  manholes.  A  flush  pump  or 
hydrant  has  been  placed  at  each  end  of  the  row  of  buildings.  Drain 
pipes  are  made  of  burr  and  cement.  The  laundries  are  situated  on  the 
roof,  and  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  each  two  staircases  or  twenty-four  fami¬ 
lies.  A  laundry  is  provided  with  seven  boilers  and  seven  tubs.  Clothes 
are  dried  on  the  roof,  each  house  having  a  space  of  15  feet  by  21  feet 
to  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Back  of  the  kitchen  is  the  scullery,  con¬ 
taining  the  water-closet,  water  sink,  and  a  box  large  enough  for  half  a 
ton  of  coal,  above  which  is  a  cupboard  of  four  shelves  for  china,  pro¬ 
visions,  etc.,  opening  to  the  air.  There  is  no  heating  of  the  halls; 
apartments  are  heated  by  means  of  ranges  and  grates,  an  iron  grate 
being  placed  in  each  room  where  a  range  does  not  exist.  The  halls 
are  lighted  by  the  company,  and  the  gas  is  turned  out  at  10 :30  p.  m. 


216  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Tenants  in  their  own  apartments  may  nse  either  gas  or  oil.  The  cLsposi- 
tion  of  tenements  on  a  given  landing  is  displayed  in  the  accompanying 
plan  (plan  No.  20). 

A  cooking  range,  with  large  oven,  two  shelves  for  dishes,  and  cast- 
iron  boiler,  etc.,  has  been  placed  in  each  kitchen.  Animal  and  vege¬ 
table  refuse  must  be  burned,  but  dust  shoots,  which  pass  down  at  the 
back  of  each  water-closet,  receive  the  ashes  and  sweepings.  The 
windows  are  arranged  with  a  fixed  and  a  sliding  sash.  The  sliding 
sash  is  guarded  by  an  iron  bar,  to  prevent  children  from  falling  out. 
On  the  roof,  behind  each  laundry,  there  are  two  water  tanks,  one  for 
drinking  water,  holding  500  gallons,  and  a  water-closet  tank,  holding 
300  gallons.  The  interior  of  the  apartments  is  always  papered  by 
the  company,  the  tenants  selecting  their  own  designs.  The  external 
architectural  features  are  quite  pleasing.  The  entrances  are  in  the 
shape  of  arched  openings,  with  sides  of  yellow  and  brown  glazed 
bricks  and  the  archway  of  pointed  red  bricks.  There  are  nine  sets  of 
bay  windows  in  each  building,  alternating  for  two  and  three  stories. 
Ornamental  projections  crown  the  top  of  the  front  wall  and  extend 
above  the  roof  over  each  set  of  staircases. 

The  Marlborough  buildings  contain  12  two-room,  120  three  room,  24 
four-room,  and  6  five-room  tenements.  The  average  cubic  contents  of 
each  two-room  tenement  is  about  2,184  feet;  of  each  three-room  tene¬ 
ment,  3,510  feet;  of  each  four-room  tenement,  4,505  feet,  and  of  each 
five-room  tenement,  5,500  feet.  The  ceilings  are  8  feet  6  inches  in 
height  throughout. 

The  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company  aims  to  provide  self- 
contained  dwellings.  It  has  standard  architectural  types,  and  chooses 
whichever  one  of  these  promises  best  to  fit  the  configuration  of  selected 
building  spaces.  A  general  plan,  a  plan  of  one  block  of  two-room 
dwellings,  and  a  plan  of  one  block  of  three-room  dwellings  on  the  Soho 
estate  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  sketches  ( plans  Nos.  21  A,  21 B, 
and  21  C). 

The  report  of  this  company  for  the  fiscal  year  1893  furnishes  the  infor¬ 
mation  that  the  mortality  returns  for  all  of  the  company’s  buildings 
continue  to  show  very  favorable  results.  For  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1893,  the  average  death  rate,  according  to  returns  received  from  the 
registrars  of  births  and  deaths,  was  only  11  per  1,000,  including  3.1  of 
infants  under  one  year  of  age;  while,  excepting  a  few  cases  of  infantile 
diseases,  as  whooping  cough,  measles,  etc.,  there  were  only  11  deaths 
from  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  on  the  whole  of  the  estates.  The 
birth  rate  in  the  buildings  averaged  31.6  per  1,000.  The  average  death 
rate  in  the  metropolis  was  19.2  per  1,000,  although  in  the  low  and  very 
crowded  districts  it  was  probably  between  30  and  40  per  1,000.  The 
birth  rate  for  the  whole  of  London  was  30.9  per  1,000. 

Families  having  only  two  children  are  permitted  to  reside  in  two-room 
tenements,  those  having  four  children  in  three-room  tenements,  while 
for  four  and  five  room  tenements  no  restrictions  exist. 


Oi\>ova\  l-fo 


First  floor. 


PART  OF  MARLBOROUGH  BUILDINGS— IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON, 

ENGLAND. 


Plan  No.  20. 


SOHO  ESTATE  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  21  a. 


SOHO  ESTATE  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— TWO-ROOM  DWELLINGS. 

Plan  No.  21  b. 


I 


SOHO  ESTATE  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— THREE-ROOM  DWELLINGS. 

Plan  No.  21  c. 


CHAPTER  II. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDING8. 


217 


The  rents  of  two  room  tenements  in  the  Marlborough  buildings  range 
from  6s.  6d.  to  7s.  3d.  ($1.58  to  $1.76)  per  week,  according  to  the  story 
on  which  the  tenements  are  situated ;  three-room  tenements  from  8s.  to 
9s.  6d.  ($1.95  to  $2.31)  per  week;  four-room  tenements  from  9s.  6d.  to 
12s.  ($2.31  to  $2.92)  per  week;  five-room  tenements  from  11s.  to  13s. 
($2.68  to  $3.16)  per  week. 

The  first  model  tenement  built  by  the  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings 
Company  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1863.  There  are  now  45  sepa¬ 
rate  estates  in  the  possession  of  the  company.  Nearly  one  third  of 
the  property  is  located  in  East  End,  London.  There  are  on  all  the 
estates  28  one-room,  374  two-room,  2,944  three-room,  1,676  four-room, 
320  five-room,  and  26  six-room  tenements.  The  aggregate  amounts  to 
5,368  separate  tenements;  and  with  117  stores  and  45  workshops  rep¬ 
resents  a  total  of  18,862  rooms,  for  the  accommodation  of  about  30,000 
working  people.  The  company  owns,  in  addition,  14  freehold  houses 
and  shops  on  the  Bethnal  Green  estate,  and  3  leasehold  shops  and  houses 
on  King’s  Cross  road.  It  owns,  also,  8  freehold  houses  and  cottages,  and 
the  freehold  of  land  in  Walton  street  and  First  street,  South  Kensing¬ 
ton,  on  which  are  located  36  leasehold  residences.  The  company  also 
manages  414  dwellings  belonging  to  private  persons. 

The  company  is  a  joint  stock  corporation  with  £500,000  ($2,433,250) 
share  capital,  and  £105,000  ($510,982.50)  in  deferred  shares.  The  rate 
of  annual  dividend  paid  formally  years  back  has  been  5  percent.  The 
total  amount  of  reserve  set  aside  up  to  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year 
was  £173,601 8s.  7d.  ($844,831.36).  Of  this  £36,449  9s.l0d.  ($177,381.45) 
has  been  spent  on  repairs.  If  we  include  the  surplus,  the  average 
annual  net  profit  for  a  number  of  years  lias  exceeded  8  per  cent.  The 
borrowed  capital  amounts  to  £300,480  15s.  4d.  ($1,754,279.65),  and  has 
been  derived  from  a  loan  from  the  public  works  loan  commissioners. 
The  actual  cost  of  freehold  and  leasehold  estates  has  been  £1,109,892 
12s.  8d.  ($5,401,292.50),  and  the  total  sum  received  for  rent  during  the 
last  fiscal  year  was  £105,854  Is.  5d.  ($515,138.84).  The  loss  of  rental 
resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  was  comparatively  small.  Figures 
for  the  last  fiscal  year  are  not  available,  but  during  1891  the  percentage 
of  “empties”  in  the  East  London  houses  amounted  to  about  7£  percent, 
in  West  Central  London  to  3  per  cent,  and  in  West  London  to  1J  per 
cent.  Kents  are  paid  weekly  in  advance  and  are  collected  by  agents 
from  the  office  of  the  company.  These  officers  are  sent  out  with  receipts, 
and  they  must  bring  back  either  the  money  or  the  receipt.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  possibilty  of  cheating.  A  tenant  must  give  at  least  one 
week’s  notice  in  writing  of  intention  to  quit.  One  and  one-half  per  cent 
upon  the  cost  of  construction  goes  annually  to  the  repair  fund.  As  new 
buildings  do  not  need  much  repair  there  is  always  a  large  available 
credit  balance  on  hand. 

It  is  obvious  that  an  annual  census  of  occupations  of  tenants  in  the 
company’s  buildings  would  be  a  formidable  task.  The  last  one  made 


218  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


was  in  1884,  for  a  special  report  of  the  board  of  directors.  This  covered 
3,915  tenants  and  represented  648  occupations.  Practically  the  same 
class  of  people  is  housed  now  as  at  that  time,  except  that  in  a  few  of  the 
West  End  estates  a  slightly  higher  class  is  catered  to.  The  following 
table  is  a  copy  of  the  list  of  occupations  of  tenants  of  the  Improved 
Industrial  Dwellings  Company  in  1884: 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  TENANTS  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS 

COMPANY. 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Accountants . 

Account-book  finisher  ... 

Account-book  maker . 

Actors . 

Actresses . 

Agents . 

Amalgamated  society’s 

officer . 

Annuitants . 

Artificial  florists . 

Artists . 

Assistants . 

Attendants . 

Bag  makers . 

Bagman . 

Bailili . 

Bakers . 

Band  sawyer . 

Bark  sorter . 

Barmen . 

Barometer  makers . 

Basket  makers . 

Bass  dresser . 

Bath  keeper . 

Bath  maker . 

Beadle . 

Beer  retailer . 

Bellows  maker . 

Bible  woman  . 

Bicycle  makers  . 

Billiard  marker . 

Blacksmiths . 

Blind-cord  maker . 

Blind  makers . 

Boat  builder . 

Boatman . 

Boatswains . 

Boiler  makers . 

Bonnet  blocker . 

Bookbinders . 

Book  collectors . 

Book-edge  gilders  . 

Booksellers’  assistants... 

Boot  closers . 

Boot  finishers . 

Boot  lasters . 

Bootmakers . 

Boot  riveter . . 

Bottle  maker . . 

Bottle  merchants . 

Bottler . 

Box-office  keoper . . . 

Box  makers . 

Box  mounter . . 

Brass  finishers . 

Bra-^s  molders . 

Brass  workers . . 

Brewers’  servants . 

Bricklayers . 

Brush  makers . 

Butchers . 

Buttermen . 

Butlers . 

Cab  drivers . 

Cabinetmakers  . 

Camp-stool  maker . 

Canvas  cutters . . 


3 

1 

1 

7 

2 

7 

1 

2 

2 

3 

7 
11 

8 
1 
1 

26 

1 

1 

4 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
8 
1 

3 
1 
1 
2 
6 
1 

45 

4 

3 
7 

5 
25 

9 

35 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

5 

1 

22 

4 
2 

12 

36 
13 
32 

2 

52 

69 

72 

1 

2 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Card  makers. ........... . 

2 

Cow  keeper _ _ 

5 

Curriers . 

112 

Carpenters . 

67 

Cutlers . 

Carpenters  and  joiners... 

18 

Dairymen  . . 

Carpenter’s  laborer. ...... 

1 

Decorators . . 

Carpet  planners . . 

4 

Carriage  trimmer . . 

1 

Carvers . 

5 

Carvers  and  gilders . 

7 

Die  maker _ _ _ 

Case  makers . 

7 

Cellarmen  . . 

14 

Chain  makers . . 

2 

Chair  makers . . 

9 

Chandelier  maker........ 

1 

Charwomen . . 

14 

Checkers . 

6 

Cheesemon  gers’assistants 

8 

Dressing-case  liner . 

Chemical  stopperer . 

1 

Choristers . . 

2 

Chronometer  maker . 

1 

Druggists’  assistants.... 

Cigar  makers . . 

9 

Cigarette  makers . 

2 

Cigar  sorter . . . 

1 

Cleaners . . . . 

3 

Clerks _ ................. 

123 

Clickers . 

14 

Electroplate  polisher  . . . . 

Clock-dial  maker . 

1 

Clock  makers . . . 

2 

Clothes  cutters . 

4 

Cloth  presser . 

1 

Club  superintendents.... 

2 

Enameler . 

Coach  builder . . 

1 

Coach  makers . 

12 

Engineers  (working) .... 

Coach  painters . 

8 

Coach  smiths . 

4 

Coachmen . . 

25 

Coal  dealers . 

2 

Coal  marker . . . 

1 

Cocoa  makers . 

4 

Coffee-house  keepers . 

2 

Coffee  roaster . 

1 

Collar  cutters . 

3 

Collar  ironer . 

1 

Collectors . 

5 

Color  maker . 

1 

Colorman . . . 

1 

Fis  b  i  1 1  g-tackle  makers . . . 

Color  mixer . 

1 

Comedians . 

3 

Commercial  travelers  . . . . 

34 

fitters  . 

Commissionaries . 

41 

Commission  agents . 

2 

Florist, . . 

Compass  mater . 

1 

Compositors . . 

62 

Conductors . 

7 

Confectioners . 

6 

Confectioners’  assistants . 

2 

French  polishers . 

Cooks . 

33 

Coopers . 

19 

Coppersmith . 

1 

Cordwainers . 

5 

Core  maker . 

1 

Cork  cutter . 

1 

Cork  sorters . . . 

3 

Corn  dealer . 

1 

Costume  cutter . 

1 

Costume  maker . 

1 

Gas  fitters . 

1 

2 

6 

5 
4 
7 
3 
2 

3 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 

4 
7 

6 
1 

26 

2 

4 
3 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 

20 

56 

1 

5 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

14 

2 

1 

1 

10 

2 

2 

6 
18 

1 

1 

31 

2 

1 

3 

21 

1 

1 

2 

4 
1 

10 

1 

2 

1 

11 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


219 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  TENANTS  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS 

COMPANY — Continued. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Gasman . . 

1 

Locksmiths . . . 

3 

Gas  regulator . . 

1 

Machine  makers. ........ 

2 

Gate  porters . 

3 

4 

Gen  eral  dealers . . . . . . 

12 

Machine  printer.... . 

1 

Gilders . 

2 

3 

Glass  bender . 

1 

Machinists . 

17 

Glass  blowers . . . . 

3 

Mail  porters . 

3 

7 

1 

Glass  engravers . 

2 

Managers . . . . 

18 

Glass  maker . . 

1 

M  anglers . . 

6 

Glass  painter....... . 

1 

M angle  women . . 

3 

1 

M:mtl  ft  makers. .......... 

4 

Gold  beaters . . 

3 

2 

Gold  burnisher _ ....... 

1 

Map  mounters . . 

3 

Printer's  overseer . 

Gold-chain  maker . 

1 

Marble  masons . . 

3 

4 

1 

Gold  worker . . . 

1 

Masons . 

5 

4 

Mattress  maker . 

1 

2 

Medical  rubber . 

1 

6 

Messengers . . 

42 

Grooms . 

6 

1  Metal  polisher _ ...... 

1 

deaths  . 

Gun  makers . 

2 

Metal  rollers . . 

3 

Rigger...... . . . 

1 

1 

Rivet  ter . . . 

9 

Microscope  maker ....... 

1 

Road  sm  an . 

2 

Milkmen . . 

4 

Rope  maker _ _ 

4 

Milliners . . 

8 

Sack  maker . . 

Handyman . 

1 

M  ill-band  makers . 

2 

Saddlers . . . . 

9 

Millers . . .... 

5 

Safe  maker . . 

10 

Millstone  builder . 

1 

1  Salesmen . . . 

1 

2 

Salvage  man . . . 

2 

Mineral- water  manufac- 

Sash-line  makers . 

3 

turers . . . 

3 

1  Saw  maker . . . 

18 

Minister . 

1 

1  Sawyers _ ..... _ _ 

5 

Missionaries . 

9 

!  Scaffolders . . . 

1 

Mission  woman . 

1 

i  Scale  makers . . 

10 

Money  takers . 

2 

1  Schoolmasters . . 

2 

Molders . 

7 

i  Schoolmistress . . 

1 

Museum  attendant . 

1 

Scripture  readers. ....... 

1 

Musi  cal  *in  strument 

Scullery  man . 

2 

maker . 

1 

Seal  i  n  g-  w  a  x  m  ak  er . 

1 

Musicians . . 

14 

Seal-jacket  finisher.. 

3 

2 

Sealskin  dressers _ 

9 

Needlewomen  . 

13 

Seamen . . 

2 

Netter . . 

1 

Sergeant  instructor. ..... 

5 

N e  ws  agent . . 

1 

Sergeant,  R.  M _ ...... 

1 

Nurses . 

9 

Servants . . 

4 

Office  cleaners . . 

7 

Shape  maker . 

i 

Oil  dealer . . 

1 

Sheriffs’  officers . . 

3 

12 

Ship-lamp  maker . 

5 

2 

15 

Opticians . 

4 

Ship  worker . 

23 

Overlooker  . . 

1 

Shipwrights . . 

1 

1 

Shirt  cutter _ .... _ 

1 

63 

Shirt  maker  . . 

73 

Packing-case  makers  .... 

5 

Shoemakers . 

1 

26 

Shopmen . 

2 

6 

Shorthand  writer . . 

2 

1 

Shunter . . 

1 

Paper  hangers . . 

6 

Sign  writers _ ...... _ 

1 

1 

Silk  dresser. . . 

26 

3 

Silk  winders . . 

2 

Pawnbroker’s  assistant.. 

1 

Silver  chasers ........... 

2 

1 

Silver  mounter  . . 

2 

22 

Silver  polishers . 

8 

Perfumers . . 

3 

Silversmiths  (working) . . 

1 

1 

Sister  of  charity... . 

5 

4 

Skin  dressers . . 

1 

1 

Slaters . . 

1 

4 

Slipper  binders . . 

1 

2 

Slipper  makers _ ....... 

1 

1 

Smiths  (various) . . 

52 

1 

Soap  cutter _ ... _ 

18 

2 

Soap  maker . . 

1 

3 

Soldiers  . 

1 

4 

Sponge  trimmer . 

9 

2 

Spring  maker . 

9 

1 

Stablemen . . 

i 

Plumbers . . 

14 

Stamper  (G.  P.  0.) . 

Loam  grinder _ 

i 

Pocketbook  makers  ..... 

2 

Stationers’  assistants.... 

Locltman . 

i 

Police  constables. . 

200 

Steam  raiser . 

Num¬ 

ber. 


15 

26 

1 

181 

3 

1 

2 

2 

1 

86 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

4 

7 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

15 

1 

20 

1 

2 

1 

8 
3 

3 

4 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 

5 

6 
1 
1 

23 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1 

3 
1 
1 

18 

14 

1 

1 

4 
1 
2 

4 
1 
3 

12 

1 

5 
2 
2 

3 
14 

1 

1 

4 
1 
1 

5 
1 

10 

1 


220  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  TENANTS  OF  THE  IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS 

COMPANY— Concluded. 


Occupation. 

Kura- 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Stereotype  founder _ _ 

X 

Tie  maker* . . . 

11 

Viewers . . 

a 

1 

Vocalist . . 

Stevedores _ _ _ _ _ ... 

7 

Timekeepers . . 

12 

Waistcoat  maker . 

Steward  e*» . . 

1 

Tin-plate  workers  ....... 

10 

Waiters . 

3 

2 

Warders . 

Stick  bender . . 

1 

Tool  finisher . 

1 

Warehousemen . . 

6 

Toy  maker . . . 

1 

Waste-paper  dealer . 

Stick  makers . 

4 

Tracer . 

1 

Watch  Aiial  maker  ....... 

Stillman __ _ _ 

i 

Tram-car  conductor...... 

1 

W  atchmakers . 

Stock  keeper _ ... _ 

i 

Trimmers . . 

2 

Watch-motion  maker _ 

Striker* . . . 

8 

Trimming  maker . 

1 

Watchmen . 

8 

1 

Water  examiner . 

11 

1 

Waterman ............... 

a 

2 

W  eaverB ............... 

4 

Turners . . 

7 

Wire  flatter . 

Surgical  -  initrii  m«nl 

Twine  spinner . 

1 

Wire  weavers . . 

maker  . . 

1 

Type  founders . 

7 

Wire- workers . . . 

Tailoreaae* . . . 

13 

Umbrella  maker* . 

7 

Wharf  manager . . 

Tailor* . 

69 

Undertakers*  assistants. . 

2 

Wheeler _ " . . 

Tailor  cutter* _ ...... 

3 

U  phoUterer* . 

23 

Wheelwrights _ ........ 

Tallow  chandler* . . 

2 

Upholsterer*,  female.. ... 

0 

Whip  mafers. ........... 

Tanners . 

3 

Valets . . .  •••••• 

0 

Wood  carvers . 

Tea  blender.............. 

1 

Vat  makers . . . . 

8 

Wood  chopper . . 

Teacher* . . 

a 

Vellum  binders...... _ 

3 

Wood  engraver .......... 

Telegraphist* . . 

8 

Veneer  salesman . 

1 

Wood  turners............ 

i 

Vest  makers . . . 

4 

Writers . . . 

Ticket  collector _ ..... 

i 

Viceman _ ............. 

1 

Yardman . . 

Ticket  examiner ......... 

i 

Vietualor* . . . . 

8 

Zinc  worker ............. 

Num¬ 

ber. 


2 

1 

1 

31 

14 

79 

1 

1 

6 

1 

11 

1 

1 

2 

1 

4 

3 

1 

1 

8 

3 
6 
1 
1 
6 

4 
1 
1 


About  17  percent  of  the  earnings  of  tenants  of  the  company’s  build¬ 
ings,  it  is  believed,  is  paid  for  rent.  Subletting  is  permitted,  with  the 
approval  of  the  chief  collector.  If  such  regulations  were  not  made  the 
company  believes  it  would  be  impossible  to  prevent  overcrowding.  In 
the  form  of  application  required  of  prospective  tenants  they  state  the 
number  of  rooms  required,  their  choice  of  building,  the  date  when  occu¬ 
pancy  will  commence,  and  promise  to  comply  in  every  respect  with  the 
conditions  of  occupation  as  printed  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  applica¬ 
tion.  The  prospective  tenant  also  promises  to  pay  6d.  (12  cents)  per 
week  toward  the  general  expenses  of  the  estate,  which  sum  he  author¬ 
izes  the  corporation  to  collect  and  recover  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
rent  of  the  dwelling.  He  then  inscribes  his  name  in  full,  his  occupa¬ 
tion,  his  address,  how  long  he  has  been  resident  there,  the  rent  he  has 
paid  for  his  dwelling,  whether  married,  widower,  or  widow,  the  name 
and  address  of  his  employer,  the  number  of  male  and  female  children 
above  the  age  of  20  years,  between  12  and  20  years,  and  under  12  years. 
The  conditions  of  occupancy  are: 

1.  The  tenancy  to  be  weekly,  and  rents  to  be  paid  and  kept  paid  a 
week  in  advance. 

2.  In  addition  to  and  apart  from  the  rent  a  deposit  of  5s.  ($1.22)  to 
be  paid  by  way  of  security  for  the  proper  use  of  fixtures,  etc.  This  is 
to  be  returned  on  the  termination  of  the  tenancy,  subject  to  proper 
deductions  for  breakages,  loss  of  keys,  or  damages  to  premises  of  any 
kind  in  excess  of  fair  wear  and  tear.  The  decision  of  the  secretary  as 
to  the  amount  of  the  deduction  to  be  final  and  conclusive. 

3.  If  gas  is  provided  the  charge  for  the  same  is  to  be  paid  weekly 
with  the  rent,  and  to  be  recoverable  from  the  tenant  as  rent.  Gas  is 
to  be  used  6olely  for  lighting  daring  reasonable  hours. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


221 


4.  Broken  windows  to  be  repaired  by  the  company,  and  the  cost 
charged  to  and  recovered  from  the  tenant  as  extra  rent.  The  chimneys 
to  be  swept  at  the  expense  of  the  tenant,  by  persons  appointed  by  the 
company,  on  application  to  the  porter. 

5.  The  stairs,  passages,  and  balconies  to  be  swept  daily  during  the 
week,  and  washed  on  Saturday  by  the  tenants  of  each  floor  in  the  order 
of  the  numbers  of  the  tenements. 

6.  The  company  to  be  at  liberty,  by  their  agents  or  workmen,  to  enter 
and  inspect  the  state  of  repair  of  every  dwelling  at  all  reasonable  hours 
of  the  day,  and  to  remove  any  fixtures  therefrom  for  repair  or  otherwise. 

7.  No  tenant  to  underlet  any  of  the  rooms  in  his  occupation  unless 
he  shall  first  obtain  the  permission  of  the  chief  collector  in  writing. 

8.  Notice  to  quit  by  tenant  to  be  given  to  the  porter  in  writing,  to  be 
delivered  by  him  to  the  secretary  at  least  a  week  before  it  is  intended 
to  terminate  tho  tenancy. 

The  resident  agents  in  the  buildings  are,  as  a  rule,  pensioners  or 
ex-policemen.  Their  duties  are  to  supervise  generally  the  buildings 
and  look  after  the  comfort  of  tenants.  They  neither  let  the  rooms  nor 
collect  the  rents.  They  only  give  out  the  forms  which  are  to  be  filled. 

The  company  does  all  of  its  own  building,  buying  its  materials  for 
oash  and  paying  directly  for  its  own  labor.  It  employs  a  large  force  of 
men  continuously  in  making  necessary  repairs.  There  is  no  architect 
in  the  employ  of  the  company. 

It  seems  to  be  the  policy  of  the  corporation  not  to  build  much  more, 
at  least  for  a  time,  in  East  London,  the  percentage  of  vacancies  indi¬ 
cating  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient  demand  to  justify  further  activity. 
More  recently  the  operations  have  been  chiefly  exercised  in  the  western 
part  of  the  city,  where  some  exceedingly  handsome  and  admirable  struc¬ 
tures  from  every  point  of  view  have  been  built,  in  some  cases  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  some  of  the  most  fashionable  squares  of  Londou. 
The  price  of  land  is  the  chief  difficulty  which  the  company  is  experi¬ 
encing  everywhere  in  extending  its  operations.  The  magnanimity  of 
such  large  landlords  as  the  Duke  of  Westminster,  the  Marquis  of 
Northampton,  and  the  Earl  of  Oadogan  in  leasing  tho  land  at  an 
exceedingly  moderate  rental,  has  alone  made  work  in  this  direction 
possible. 

The  Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company  is  a  purely  commercial 
organization.  It  has  done  nothing  directly  for  the  sake  of  philan¬ 
thropy,  though  indirectly  the  most  important  philanthropic  results  have 
been  reached.  The  aim  of  the  president,  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow,  a 
veteran  in  this  field  of  social  labor,  has  been  to  pay  a  5  per  cent  dividend 
annually  and  to  carry  a  sufficiently  large  sum  to  the  reserve  account. 
The  company  caters  to  the  artisan  rather  than  to  the  laborer,  but  in 
the  view  of  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  and  Mr.  Moore,  the  secretary,  this  is 
not  only  a  perfectly  legitimate  but  useful  thing  to  do,  in  that  those 
who  are  capable  of  paying  higher  rentals,  when  induced  to  leave  their 
old  surroundings  and  come  into  model,  self-contained  dwellings,  leave 
their  former  residences  for  the  class  below  them.  Beginning  at  the 


222  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


top,  results  in  improvement,  both  sanitary  and  ethical,  all  along  the 
line.  The  prime  feature  of  the  enterprise  has  been  to  secure  the  inde¬ 
pendence  and  isolation  of  the  individual  family  to  as  great  a  degree 
as  possible.  With  this  end  in  view,  two  living  apartments  only  are 
entered  from  the  same  landing.  The  measure  of  appreciation  which 
has  been  meted  out  to  the  corporation  for  its  useful  efforts  has  per¬ 
haps  been  best  expressed  by  Mr.  Powell,  speaking  as  the  delegate  of 
sixty -eignt  trade  societies,  in  his  evidence  before  a  select  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  when  he  stated  that  the  blocks  built  by  the 
Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company  u  a.re  probably  among  the 
best  examples  of  how  taste  and  convenience  and  privacy  of  home  may 
be  secured  in  the  block  system,  in  perhaps  even  greater  degree  than 
in  the  ordinary  dwellings  of  the  industrial  classes.” 

ARTISANS’,  LABORERS'  AND  GENERAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY, 

LONDON. 

This  company  originated,  in  1867,  by  a  few  workingmen  banding 
together  to  build  dwellings  for  their  fellows.  The  nominal  capital  was 
originally  £250,000  ($1,216,625),  in  25,000  shares  of  £10  ($48.67)  each, 
but  the  undertaking  being  successful  it  grew  very  rapidly,  and  the 
shares  were  soon  taken  up  as  the  building  operations  were  extended. 
In  1874  the  capital  was  by  special  resolution  increased  to  £1,000,000 
($4,866,500),  and  again,  in  1879,  to  £1,250,000  ($6,083,125),  by  the 
emission  of  £250,000  ($1,216,625)  preferred  shares  bearing  a  noncumu- 
lative  preferential  dividend  of  4£  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  exist¬ 
ing  share  capital  is  £2,117,230  ($10,303,499.80).  There  are  no  mortgages 
or  debentures  of  any  kind.  The  total  amount  set  aside  for  reserve  up 
to  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year,  was  £123,784  ($602,394.84).  For  the 
last  twelve  years  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent,  free  of  income  tax,  has  been 
paid  annually  on  common  stock. 

Until  1886  this  corporation  occupied  itself  entirely  with  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  immense  suburban  estates.  The  building  of  small  houses, 
which  originally  were  intended  to  be  sold  to  occupants  on  ninety-nine 
year  leases,  represented  the  only  kind  of  activity.  Since  that  time  ten 
block  buildings,  four  of  them  situated  in  the  eastern  central,  five  of  them 
in  the  west,  and  one  in  the  northwestern  district  of  London,  have  been 
built  for  habitation.  These  buildings  contain  in  all  1,467  tenements, 
comprising  3,495  rooms.  They  also  include  14S  shops.  The  suburban 
estates  are  (1)  Shaftesbury  Park,  Battersea,  Southwest  London,  com¬ 
prising  42£  acres,  upon  which  1,198  houses  and  one  block  of  22  tenements 
have  been  built;  (2)  Queen’s  Park,  Harrow  Eoad,  West  London,  con¬ 
taining  76  acres,  upon  which  there  have  been  constructed  2,297  houses; 
(3)  Noel  Park,  Wood  Green,  North  London,  which  is  not  yet  fully 
developed,  containing  100  acres,  upon  which  1,305  houses  have  so  far 
been  built;  (4)  Leigham  Court,  Streatham,  Southwest  London,  contain¬ 
ing  66  acres,  now  being  built  upon.  The  delay  in  the  development  of 


Plan  No.  22 


HORNSEY  ESTATE  OF  THE  ARTISANS’,  LABORERS’  AND  GENERAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND-THIRD-CLASS  HOUSES. 

4t 

Plan  No.  23. 


Ground  Plan  »  First  Floor  Plan 


HORNSEY  ESTATE  OF  THE  ARTISANS’,  LABORERS'  AND  GENERAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— SECOND-CLASS  HOUSES. 

Plan  No.  24. 

jP- 


HORNSEY  ESTATE  OF  THE  ARTISANS’,  LABORERS’  AND  GENERAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— FIRST-CLASS  HOUSES. 


Plan  No.  25 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


223 


the  Noel  Park  estate,  the  directors  believe,  has  been  materially  due  to 
the  indisposition  of  the  Great  Eastern  Railway  Company  to  provide 
on  this  branch  those  facilities  for  the  cheap  travel  of  working  people 
which  exist  on  other  parts  of  their  suburban  system.  In  addition  to 
the  properties  named  this  company  has  provincial  estates,  the  income 
from  which  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  £1,961  Os.  lid.  ($0,513.43). 
The  total  income  of  the  corporation  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was 
£150,697  18s.  3d.  ($733,371.39).  The  provincial  estates  are  situated  in 
Liverpool,  Salford,  Birmingham,  and  Smethwick.  They  are  valued  in 
the  inventory  at  £28,464  19s.  ($  138,524.68).  The  company’s  entire  prop¬ 
erty  amounts  in  value  to  £2,407,621  11s.  8d.  ($11,716,690.44).  Ordinary 
shares  have  been  for  some  time  issued  at  a  premium  of  £1  ($4.87)  for 
every  £10  ($48.67)  share.  Preferred  shares  command  a  premium  of 
£1 5s.  ($6.08)  per  £10  ($48.67)  share.  When  new  estates  are  developed, 
instead  of  borrowing  money  new  capital  is  issued,  and  as  a  rule  the 
shares  are  subscribed  for  by  shareholders  and  their  friends. 

In  developing  a  suburban  estate  the  company  first  selects  a  freehold 
site  of  from  40  to  100  acres,  upon  which  it  commences  building  opera¬ 
tions,  after  having  carefully  planned  the  most  desirable  dispositions  for 
roads  and  avenues.  Opportunities  for  architectural  effect  are  necessarily 
limited,  because  all  the  houses  are  intended  to  command  a  comparatively 
low  rental,  but  anyone  visiting  either  of  the  three  principal  estates 
will  see  that  depressing  uniformity  of  appearance  has  been  avoided  and 
that  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of  tasteful  architectural  effect  has  been 
achieved.  A  variety  of  elevation  particularly  is  aimed  at,  and  some 
simple  architectural  effect  is  usually  introduced  at  the  center  of  ter¬ 
races  and  in  corner  houses.  The  greater  expenditure  involved  in  this 
style  of  treatment  is  usually  made  up  by  the  extra  space  in  the  projec¬ 
tions,  which  permits  the  rental  of  such  houses  at  an  enhanced  price. 

The  company  has  classified  its  suburban  cottages  into  five  general 
categories.  The  corner  houses  and  shops  with  dwelling  accommoda¬ 
tions  are  not  included.  Originally  there  were  but  four  classes,  but  the 
great  demand  for  smaller  houses  furnished  an  inducement  to  build 
cottages  at  still  lower  rentals.  A  fifth-class  house  (plan  No.  22)  con¬ 
tains  two  bedrooms,  a  parlor,  a  kitchen,  and  a  scullery,  and  rents  for 
6s.  ($1.46)  per  week.  A  fourth-class  house  has  the  same  number  of 
rooms,  only  they  are  larger.  The  rental  for  it  is  7s.  6d.  ($1.83)  per 
week.  A  third-class  house  (plan  No.  23)  contains  three  bedrooms 
instead  of  two,  and  a  much  larger  scullery.  It  rents  for  9s.  ($2.19)  per 
week.  In  a  second-class  house  (plan  No.  24)  there  are  three  bed-rooms 
upstairs,  as  in  the  third-class  houses,  and  on  the  ground  tioor  a  parlor, 
a  kitchen,  and  a  third  room,  which  may  be  used  either  as  a  bed-room  or 
sitting  room.  The  rental  is  10s.  ($2.43)  per  week.  A  first-class  house 
(plan  No.  25)  contains  eight  rooms — four  bedrooms,  two  parlors,  a 
kitchen,  and  a  scullery.  The  rental  is  11s.  6d.  ($2.80)  per  week.  These 
charges  include  all  rates  and  taxes. 


224  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Special  care  has  been  taken  with  drainage,  ventilation,  and  water 
supply,  and  the  houses  have  been  constructed  with  every  sanitary  pre¬ 
caution.  Every  house  has  been  built  on  a  layer  of  concrete,  covering 
the  entire  area;  the  walls  are  all  damp  coursed,  and  party  walla  are 
thicker  than  is  usual.  The  timber  and  other  materials  employed  are  of 
the  best  quality.  No  sewers  pass  under  the  houses;  the  drains  are 
properly  trapped  and  the  sinks  disconnected,  discharging  over  open-air 
trap, gullies.  Special  ventilation  of  each  room  has  also  been  success¬ 
fully  accomplished.  The  roadmaking  and  paving  has  been  excellently 
done,  and  the  streets  are  planted  on  each  side  with  trees.  On  all  of 
the  estates  attempts  have  been  made  to  elevate  the  tone  of  the  inhab¬ 
itants.  Garden  cultivation  is  especially  encouraged  by  awardin  g  prizes 
at  flower  shows  for  the  best  kept  gardens  and  for  household  plants. 
Each  house  has  a  small  plot  of  ground  both  in  front  and  at  the  back. 
A  literary  institute  has  been  opened  at  Shaftesbury  Park,  and  on  the 
Queen’s  Park  estate  a  club,  library,  and  recreation  building  has  been 
provided.  Liquor  in  any  form  is  not  allowed  to  be  sold  on  any  of  the 
estates. 

A  census  of  occupants  of  the  Queen’s  Park  estate  was  made  in  June, 
1884,  for  submission  to  the  royal  commission  on  the  housing  of  the 
working  classes.  This  list  showed  that  34  heads  of  families  were  bakers 
and  butchers,  42  boot  and  shoe  makers,  53  bricklayers  and  masons,  87 
carpenters,  joiners,  and  cabinetmakers,  43  cabmen  and  coachmen,  90 
clerks  and  warehousemen,  182  laborers,  42  letter  carriers  and  messen¬ 
gers,  73  painters  and  decorators,  156  railway  employees,  48  store  clerks, 
34  tailors,  25  commercial  travelers,  27  policemen,  and  74  were  engaged 
in  miscellaneous  pursuits.  The  general  character  of  the  inhabitants 
has  not  changed  greatly  since,  and  probably  these  are  representative  of 
the  present  population.  Tenants  are  permitted  to  sublet  or  receive 
boarders. 

/ 

The  company  has  discontinued  the  original  scheme  of  selling  the 
houses  on  ninety-nine-year  leases,  thus  making  tenants  proprietors. 
The  reasons  for  this  are: 

1.  That  the  practice  damaged  the  property  in  the  eyes  of  investors, 
because  of  the  company  losing  control  of  the  entire  administration. 
The  company  was  thus  crippled  in  seeking  to  obtain  capital  which  was 
very  necessary  for  furthering  its  enterprises. 

2.  The  company  could  not  well  prevent  overcrowding,  or  even  the 
establishment  of  immoral  houses  in  the  neighborhood. 

3.  These  houses  very  largely  fell  into  the  hands  of  middlemen,  who 
rented  them  about  15  per  cent  higher  than  the  previous  rates.  The 
original  purchaser  nearly  always  sold  out  at  a  profit  to  one  of  these 
men  when,  for  any  reason,  such  as  change  of  working  locality,  he  found 
it  convenient  to  live  in  another  section  of  London.  Consequently  the 
middleman  was  justified  in  charging  highe1*  rent,  because  he  had  to 
pay  more  for  the  house. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  STAIRWAY  AND  ROOMS  IN  A  BLOCK  OF  THE  ARTISANS’,  LABORERS’  AND  GENERAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  26. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  RLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


225 


This  system  was  abolished  in  1879,  but  up  to  that  time,  on  two 
estates  where  it  had  been  brought  into  practice,  .335  houses  out  of  a 
total  of  3,381  had  been  sold  on  leaseholds  for  deferred  payments.  The 
company’s  plan  has  been  to  buy  back  all  of  the  houses  sold,  and  it  lias 
succeeded  in  doing  so  in  a  great  many  instances. 

The  Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  in  its 
block  buildings,  caters  to  a  lower  class  of  laboring  people  than  some 
of  the  other  housing  corporations.  In  order  to  be  able  to  reduce  rent¬ 
als  within  measurable  limits  for  such  people,  rather  more  space  on  lots 
has  been  built  upon  than  is  usual  with  really  model  blocks.  A  very 
fair  provision  of  open  space,  however,  remains  everywhere.  The  build¬ 
ings  are  solidly  constructed,  as  a  rule,  of  brick,  and  an  interesting 
feature  is  the  use  of  glazed  brick  of  different  colors  in  the  hallways 
and  corridors.  The  roofing  material  is  usually  of  asphalt.  The  stair¬ 
cases  are  generally  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  building,  and  from 
each  landing  2  single  room  and  4  two-room  tenements,  or  2  two  room 
and  2  three-room  tenements  have  their  entries. 

The  accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  20)  was  prepared  simply  from  a 
mental  sketch  given  by  Mr.  Farrant,  the  deputy  chairman  and  manag¬ 
ing  director  of  the  company,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  relative  posi¬ 
tion  of  staircase  and  tenements.  No  attempt,  was  made  at  accuracy 
of  dimensions. 

Two  water-closets,  two  sinks,  two  dust  shoots,  and  a  laundry  are 
placed  on  each  landing.  This  staircase  is  the  prevailing  type,  because 
with  its  use  1,000  people  per  acre  may  be  safely  housed  and  an  outlay 
of  about  5  per  cent  thereby  saved.  The  staircase  is  lighted  by  a  rear 
window  and  by  a  skylight  above.  The  cubic  space  of  the  corridor  and 
staircase  is  all  in  oue.  Where  more  than  four  families  use  a  stair¬ 
case  on  a  given  floor,  a  corridor  is  placed  between  the  front  and  rear 
tenements. 

The  block  buildings  of  the  company  are  usually  five  or  six  stories 
high.  Special  arrangements  have  been  made  to  make  them  absolutely 
fireproof.  The  staircases  are  of  stone  and  9  feet  wide.  Under  the 
floors  Portland  cement  and  coke  breeze,  6£  inbhes  thick,  fill  the  space 
between  the  iron  girders.  The  flooring  material  is  of  blocks  of  Baltic 
yellow  deal,  3  inches  square,  laid  on  this  concrete  with  pitch.  The 
roof  is  of  French  asphalt,  as  already  stated.  The  halls  are  wide  aud 
well  lighted,  and  are  lined  throughout  with  glazed  brick.  Two  gas¬ 
lights  have  been  placed  on  each  landing  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
may  light  the  passage  to  the  water-closets.  Each  vertical  set  of  closets 
is  supplied  by  a  tank  containing  500  gallons,  and  each  set  of  sinks, 
with  tap  for  domestic  supply,  including  the  laundry,  has  a  2,000  gallon 
tank  at  the  top  of  the  building.  The  drinking  water  is  entirely  sepa¬ 
rate  from  these.  The  laundry,  baths,  closets,  sinks,  etc.,  are  arranged 
so  as  to  focus  the  whole  drainage  system  and  detach  it  completely  from 
the  dwelling  apartments.  Soil  pipes  are  ventilated  at  the  top.  The 


H.  Ex.  354 - 15 


226  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


arrangements  for  ventilation  are  very  good.  Every  bedroom  bas  one 
window  and  every  kitchen  two  windows,  5  feet  by  2  feet  6  inches,  and 
there  are  transoms  above  all  the  doors.  Ou  each  floor  there  has  been 
placed  a  commodious  laundry,  19  feet  square,  with  boiler,  two  wash- 
tubs  with  glazed  stone  lining  and  teak  wood  top,  provided  with  hot 
and  cold  water,  and  full-sized  stoneware  baths,  for  the  use  of  four  fami¬ 
lies.  The  floors  are  cemented  and  the  walls  are  glazed.  In  every 
kitchen  there  is  a  cooking  range,  with  oven,  boiler,  etc.  For  fuel 
storage  there  is  a  coal  bin  holding  3  hundredweight.  There  is  a  larder 
in  the  kitchen  which  opens  to  the  outer  air;  also  a  dresser  with  two 
drawers,  and  cupboards  for  chinaware.  A  dwarf  cupboard  14  by  10 
inches,  with  hooks  below,  has  been  put  in  living  rooms.  There  are 
grates  with  trivets  in  all  the  chambers.  The  woodwork  inside  the 
dwellings  is  grained  and  varnished.  Externally  there  are  usually  red 
brick  facings  or  cement  in  imitation  of  terra  cotta. 

The  company  does  all  its  own  building,  and  its  pay  roll  ordinarily 
amounts  to  £2,000  ($9,733)  per  week. 

The  rentals  for  all  block  buildings  are  based  upon  an  average  of  2s. 
6d.  (61  cents)  per  room,  but  two-room  tenements  vary  from  4s.  to  5s. 
(97  cents  to  $1.22),  and  three-room  from  6s.  to  7s.  ($1.46  to  $1.70),  and 
are  occasionally  as  high  as  8s.  6d.  ($3.07)  per  week.  Two-room  and 
three-room  tenements  are  the  prevailing  types  in  the  block  buildings, 
although  single  rooms  have  been  provided  for  widows  and  spinsters. 
Kents  are  paid  during  the  week  in  which  they  are  due,  and  are  collected 
by  the  superintendent  of  the  building.  The  rentals  have  not  advanced 
during  the  last  fourteen  years,  and  generally  they  are  about  15  per  cent 
below  the  market  value  of  the  accommodations  furnished.  It  is  not 
remarkable,  therefore,  that  the  sum  lost  from  unoccupied  lodgings  is  so 
insignificant  as  to  render  its  mention  not  worth  while.  The  sums  lost 
during  the  fiscal  year  from  empties  and  arrearages  in  rent  together 
amounted  to  but  the  merest  fraction  of  1  per  cent. 

METROPOLITAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  DWELLINGS 
OF  THE  INDUSTRIOUS  CLASSES,  LONDON. 

This  is  the  oldest  organization  of  the  kind  in  London,  and  owns 
altogether  14  estates,  containing  1,412  tenements  and  14  shops.  The 
Farringdon  road  buildings,  which  represent  some  of  the  best  property 
of  the  association,  occupy  a  little  over  one-half  of  a  lot  containing 
33,880  square  feet.  The  open  space  is  between  the  different  buildings, 
so  as  to  allow  through  ventilation  on  all  sides  of  each  group.  No  part 
of  it  is  covered  for  recreation  grounds  for  children  during  rainy  weather. 
The  buildings  are  six  stories  high  and  are  constructed  of  brick.  Each 
building  in  the  group  has  two  sets  of  landings  and  staircases,  which 
are  entirely  separate  and  distinct.  Four  tenements  open  to  each  land¬ 
ing,  making  a  total  of  twenty-four  families  in  the  six  stories  using  one 
staircase.  A  small  landing  outside  the  rooms  of  the  tenement,  but 


GATLIFF  BUILDINGS,  LONDON 

Plan  No.  27  a. 


t 

l 


o 


GATLIFF  BUILDINGS,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  27  b. 


T?  o 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


227 


shut  off  by  a  gate  from  the  common  staircase,  has  been  constructed  for 
every  two  sets  of  dwellings.  Water-closets  for  each  family  are  inside 
the  tenements,  but  they  do  not  communicate  directly  with  the  living 
rooms.  Dust  shafts  are  provided  for  the  reception  of  dust,  ashes,  etc.; 
the  garbage  must  be  burned.  There  is  a  laundry  for  the  use  of  tenants. 
Gaslighting  is  provided  by  the  association,  on  stairs,  balconies,  and 
in  the  passages.  The  lights  are  extinguished  at  11  p.  in.,  except  on  Sat¬ 
urdays,  when  they  burn  till  midnight. 

The  front  elevation  of  the  Gatliff  buildings,  one  of  the  best  proper¬ 
ties  of  the  association,  situated  at  Pimlico,  together  with  tioor  plan,  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  sketches  (plans  Nos.  27  A  and  27  B). 

In  the  Farringdon  road  buildings  the  prevailing  rent  of  two-room 
tenements  is  from  5s.  to  5s.  (id.  ($1.22  to  $1.34)  per  week;  three-room 
tenements,  from  6s.  to  7s.  3d.  ($1.46  to  $1.76)  per  week;  four-room  tene¬ 
ments,  from  6s.  9d.  to  9s.  6d.  ($1.64  to  $2.31)  per  week. 

The  mortality  among  the  occupants  of  the  property  of  this  associa¬ 
tion  was  14.47  per  1,000  during  the  year  ending  March  31,  1893, 
including  16  deaths  which  occurred  in  hospitals  and  infirmaries.  The 
average  number  of  inhabitants  in  the  houses  of  the  association  was 
6,494.  In  the  entire  metropolis  of  London  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1893,  the  death  rate  was  19.2  per  1,000.  As  regards  infant  mortality 
deaths  under  one  year  of  age  were  at  the  rate  of  162  in  every  1,000 
births  on  the  property  of  the  association,  and  in  the  entire  metropolis 
at  the  rate  of  155  for  every  1,000  births.  There  were  203  births,  being 
a  rate  of  31.2  per  1,000  of  the  population  of  the  dwellings  of  the  associa¬ 
tion,  while  the  birth  rate  of  the  entire  metropolis  was  30.9  per  1,000. 

The  present  share  capital  of  the  association  is  £192,200  ($935,341.30). 
Almost  the  whole  of  -it  has  been  subscribed  by  different  shareholders, 
a  small  legacy  of  £1,000  ($4,866.50)  being  the  exception.  Up  to  1890 
the  association  paid  5  per  cent  annual  dividend.  Since  that  time  it  has 
paid  4£  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  reserve  set  aside  up  to  March 
31,  1893,  was  £11,000  ($53,531.50).  Were  this  counted,  the  net  profit 
would  exceed  4|  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  borrowed  capital  is 
£60,578  12s.  Id.  ($294,805.78),  part  of  which  is  a  private  loan;  but  the 
greater  part  of  it  came  from  the  public  works  loan  commissioners.  Three 
and  3£  per  cent  are  paid  upon  the  different  loans.  Rates  and  taxes  for 
the  year  ending  March  31,  1893,  were  paid  as  follows  on  the  property 
of  the  association: 


Local  rates 
House  duty 
Laud  tax  . . 
Income  tax 
Tithes . 


$16, 445. 02 
40.05 
81.64 
2, 143.  33 
7.  85 


The  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  lodgings,  together  with  bad  debts, 
during  the  fiscal  year  1892  was  $2,340.79.  The  average  weekly  empties 
for  1892,  including  the  cottage  property,  was  1.43  per  cent.  Rents  are 


228  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

paid  weeklyin  advance  at  the  superintendent’s  office.  One  week’s  notice 
of  intention  to  quit  is  required.  The  total  sum  lost  from  nonpayment 
of  arrears  of  rent  during  the  iiscal  year  1892  was  £33  13s.  5d.  ($163.86), 
or  a  minute  fraction  of  the  total  rent  roll.  Tenants  are  not  permitted 
to  sublet  or  to  receive  boarders.  The  tenant  simply  signs  an  agree¬ 
ment  to  observe  the  rules  and  regulations  and  to  pay  in  advance.  The 
general  regulations  governing  tenants  contain  the  usual  prohibitions 
and  prescriptions.  They  do  not  require  special  mention. 

FOUR  PER  CENT  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

The  authorized  capital  stock  of  this  corporation  is  £80,000  ($389,320), 
of  which  £60,775  ($295,761.54)  has  been  paid  in.  It  started  operations 
in  1885,  and  up  to  1893  had  paid  4  per  cent  per  annum.  The  property 
at  the  end  of  1891  consisted  of  two  completed  groups  of  dwellings  and 
one  in  course  of  construction.  In  1893  a  group,  containing  176  one, 
two,  and  three  room  dwellings,  was  completed.  The  Brady  street  model 
dwellings  (plan  Ho.  28),  which  are  strictly  first  class  in  every  respect, 
comprise  two  large  blocks,  each  308  feet  long,  with  double  frontages, 
containing  in  all  192  three-room  and  48  four-room  tenements,  and  two 
smaller  blocks,  each  38  feet  long,  with  double  frontages,  containing  45 
single-room  tenements,  4  bathrooms,  a  suite  of  rooms  for  the  superin¬ 
tendent,  and  another  for  the  janitor.  The  buildings  inclose  a  play¬ 
ground  having  an  area  of  over  one-third  of  an  acre,  part  of  which  is 
planted  with  shrubs,  etc.  There  is  a  clubroom  and  library  (plan  No.  29) 
attached  to  the  buildings,  which  contain  the  following  accommodations: 
(1)  Men’s  clubroom  or  news  room;  (2)  men’s  conversation  room;  (3) 
billiard  room;  (4)  women’s  clubroom;  (5)  women’s  conversation  room; 
(6)  library;  (7)  class  room;  (8)  concert  room,  with  stage,  etc.;  (9)  rooms 
for  custodian,  with  lavatories,  etc.,  for  men  and  women. 

The  cost  ot  the  freehold  site  upon  which  these  buildings  are  erected, 
affording  a  total  building  area  of  48,000  square  feet,  was  £55,630 
($270,966.72). 

Rentals  for  single-room  tenements  are  Is.  Od.  (37  cents)  per  week, 
for  three-room  tenements,  according  to  location,  from  4s.  to  5s.  6d. 
(97  cents  to  $1.34)  and  for  four-room  tenements  from  5s.  6d.  to  7s. 
($1.34  to  $1.70).  The  maximum  rent  is  7s.  ($1.70)  per  week.  The  ten¬ 
ements  are  self-contained,  each  having  a  separate  entrance  from  the 
open  staircase  and  a  separate  water-closet  and  scullery.  The  rentals 
lange  from  30  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  below  the  rentals  of  other  build¬ 
ings  in  the  district.  The  population  in  the  buildings  at  the  end  of 
December,  1893,  comprised  276  men,  315  women,  and  570  children.  The 
occupations  of  heads  of  tenant  families  appear  in  the  subjoined  table: 


BRADY  STREET  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  FOUR  PER  CENT  INDUSTRIAL  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  28. 


CLUB  AND  LIBRARY  OF  BRADY  STREET  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  FOUR  PER  CENT  INDUSTRIAL 
DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON,  ENGLAND 

Plan  No.  29. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


229 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  TENANTS  OF  THE  BRADY  STREET  DWELLINGS. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

N  um¬ 
ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Agent . 

1 

Engineers . 

4 

Poulterer . . . 

1 

Bakers . 

2 

French  polisher . 

1 

3 

Blacksmith . 

1 

Furrier . . 

1 

1 

Bootmakers,  finishers, etc. 

22 

General  dealers . . 

10 

Skin  dresser  . 

1 

Brewer’s  porter . 

1 

Grocers . 

2 

1 

Bricklayer . . 

1 

J  eweler . . . 

1 

5 

Butcher . . . 

1 

Laborers . 

4 

Cabinetmakers . 

20 

Maltster . 

i 

trades . 

71 

Cabmen . 

2 

Mantle  maker . 

i 

Teachers . 

2 

Capmakers . . 

17 

Midwife. _ _ 

i 

10 

Carmen . . . 

6 

Packer . 

i 

Turner . . . 

1 

Carpenters . 

3 

Packing-case  maker  .... 

i 

1 

Carver . 

1 

Painter* . . 

i 

2 

Cigar  and  cigarette  male- 

Pilot . 

i 

3 

ers  and  kindred  trades. . 

21 

Plate  layer . 

i 

Wire  and  zinc  workers. . 

3 

Confectioner . 

1 

Policeman . 

i 

Various  occupations  .... 

33 

1 

Porter . . . 

i 

Diamond  polishers . 

2 

Postmen . 

2 

The  buildings  were  fully  occupied  during  the  last  fiscal  year  and  only 
£11  ($53.53)  was  lost  from  nonpayment  of  arrearages. 

In  addition  to  the  Brady  street  dwellings  there  are  also  the  Charlotte 
de  Rothschild  model  dwellings  containing  accommodation  for  about  the 
same  number  of  persons,  and  the  new  buildings  recently  erected  oppo¬ 
site  the  latter.  Tenants  are  possibly  of  a  slightly  lower  grade  in  the 
Charlotte  de  Rothschild  than  in  the  Brady  street  model  dwellings. 

Rents  are  paid  weekly  in  advance,  and  before  entering  all  tenants 
must  make  a  deposit  of  5s.  ($1.22),  except  tenants  of  single  rooms,  who 
.must  deposit  2s.  Gd.  (61  cents).  A  week’s  notice  is  required  of  intention 
to  quit.  Subletting  or  receiving  boarders  is  not  allowed.  Instead  of 
laundries  a  boiler  has  been  placed  in  each  of  the  sculleries,  so  that 
family  life  is  isolated  to  the  greatest  extent  possible. 

The  borrowed  capital  of  the  company  at  the  end  of  1893  amounted  to 
£66,000  ($321,189),  upon  which  3J  per  cent  interest  was  paid.  In  1893, 
after  paying  the  interest  on  debentures  and  a  dividend  of  4  per  cent,  a 
sum  equal  to  about  2£  per  cent  was  placed  to  the  reserve  fund  and  car¬ 
ried  forward  as  a  cash  balance.  The  earnings  of  this  company,  which 
has  its  buildings  always  full  and  is  among  the  best  of  the  model  com¬ 
panies  as  regards  the  character  of  the  accommodation  it  provides,  were 
thus  last  year  G£  per  cent.  The  annual  average  has  been  not  far  from 
7  per  cent.  The  reserve  fund  accumulated  up  to  December  31,  1893, 
amounted  to  £3,600  ($17,519.40),  or  nearly  6  per  cent  on  the  paid-up 
capital. 


EAST  END  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

This  comx>any,  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1891,  owned  ten  blocks  of 
tenement  buildings  valued  at  £95,294  5s.  8d.  ($463,749.63).  These  are  the 
Katharine  buildings,  consisting  of  one  and  two  room  tenements,  con¬ 
taining  in  all  281  rooms j  the  Lolesworth  buildings,  containing  160  one- 


230  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

room  and  40  two-room  tenements,  besides  a  clubroom,  and  2  shops  with 
dwellings  attached;  the  Museum  buildings,  containing  36  tenements  of 
one,  two,  and  three  rooms,  and  9  shops  with  dwellings  attached ;  the 
Strafford  houses,  containing  32  tenements  and  8  shops;  the  Gordon 
dwellings,  containing  50  tenements;  and  the  Cromer  street  estate,  con¬ 
sisting  of  two  blocks  of  tenements,  containing  respectively  10  sets  of 
four-room  and  20  sets  of  three-room  dwellings,  as  well  as  three  blocks 
of  tenements  containing  a  total  of  259  rooms.  Other  buildings  were 
in  course  of  erection  at  the  end  of  the  year  1891. 

In  the  Katharine  buildings  the  rental  of  one-room  tenements  varies 
from  2s.  to  3s.  Gd.  (49  to  85  cents)  in  the  first  and  second  stories,  from 
Is.  9d.  to  3s.  (43  to  73  cents)  in  the  third  and  fourth  stories,  and  from 
Is.  Gd.  to  2s.  9d.  (37  to  67  cents)  in  the  fifth  story,  per  week.  The 
rental  of  ordinary  two-room  tenements  is  5s.  Gd.  ($1.34)  per  week  in  the 
first  and  second  stories,  5s.  ($1.22)  in  the  third  and  fourth  stories,  and 
4s.  Gd.  ($1.10)  in  the  fifth  story.  Two  very  large  rooms  rent  for  6s.  Gd. 
($1.58)  in  the  first  and  second  stories,  5s.  Gd.  ($1.34)  in  the  third 
and  fourth  stories,  and  5s.  ($1.22)  in  the  fifth  story.  The  total  rent 
roll  of  all  the  estates  of  the  company  for  the  fiscal  year  1891  was 
£7,808  18s.  lid.  ($38,002.23). 

The  company  was  incorporated  in  1884.  Its  authorized  capital  stock 
is  £100,000  ($486, G50),  of  which  £80,410  ($391,315.27)  had  been  paid  in 
at  the  end  of  1891.  The  dividends  paid  for  the  years  1885  to  18S9, 
inclusive,  were  4  per  cent;  in  1890,  44  per  cent;  in  1891,  5  per  cent.  A 
small  reserve  of  £500  ($2,433.25)  was  available  at  the  end  of  the  year 
1891.  The  sum  of  £19,797  8s.  5d.  ($96,344.15)  represents  the  amount  of 
existing  mortgages  on  the  property,  upon  which  3£  and  4  per  cent 
interest  is  paid.  The  loans  have  all  been  obtained  from  the  public 
works  loan  commissioners.  The  loss  of  rental  resulting  from  unoccupied 
lodgings  in  the  tenement  blocks,  excepting  the  Cromer  street  estate,  dur¬ 
ing  the  fiscal  year  1891  was  £383  9s.  9d.  ($1,806.24),  or  5f  per  cent  of 
the  gross  rental.  The  bad  debts  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1891  for 
the  same  tenement  buildings  amounted  to  £111  3s.  9d.  ($541.09),  while 
the  amounts  due  and  arrearages  aggregated  £100  7s.  7d.  ($488.50). 
Rents  have  been  collected,  by  lady  collectors,  on  the  plan  of  Miss  Octavia 
Hill  since  1885. 

TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

The  object  of  this  company  seems  to  be  to  buy  up  property,  improve 
it,  put  it  in  thorough  sanitary  shape,  and  rent  it  at  reasonable  rates. 
The  company  does  not  necessarily  buy  block  dwellings. 

1  he  total  amount  of  share  capital  paid  in  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year 
18. t»  was  £15,686  ($76,335.92).  The  borrowed  capital  amounted  to 
£17,000  ($82,730.50),  upon  which  4J  per  cent  interest  is  paid.  The 
income  from  the  different  properties  owned,  for  the  fiscal  year  1893, 
amounted  to  £2,657  18s.  lOd.  ($12,934.87).  The  enterprise  has  paid  5 
pei  cent  dividend,  except  in  1888,  ever  since  the  company  was  formed. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  231 

A  small  reserve,  equal  to  £230  (§1,110.30),  must  be  added  in  order  to 
estimate  the  net  profit  on  fiscal  operations. 

This  company  aims  to  shelter  different  classes  of  tenants.  The  smaller 
portion  of  its  property  gives  accommodation  to  the  very  lowest,  and 
rates  are  so  fixed  that  a  deficit  is  barely  avoided.  Another  estate  is 
occupied  by  a  better  class,  and  from  it  a  considerable  profit  is  obtained. 
The  largest  investment  is  the  Bolina  road  estate,  comprising  seventy- 
four  houses,  which  when  bought  were  new  houses  of  a  good  class,  each 
containing  2  three-room  tenements  and  a  scullery.  There  is  a  good 
yard  behind  each  house,  which  is  common  to  both  tenements.  The 
rent  charged  is  6s.  Gd.  (§1.58)  per  dwelling  per  week.  From  this  estate 
the  profits  are  considerable.  The  aim  of  the  company,  while  not  raising 
the  rents  of  even  its  highest  class  of  property  beyond  the  prevailing 
limit,  seems  to  be  to  look  for  its  dividends  from  this  kind  of  property. 
At  the  Bolina  road  estate  there  is  a  library  for  the  use  of  tenants. 

By  the  articles  of  association  one-half  of  the  profits  earned  by  the 
company  over  and  above  5  per  cent  on  the  paid-up  capital  stock  for  the 
time  being  is  set  aside  to  form  what  is  known  as  the  tenants’  benefit 
account.  The  other  half  goes  to  form  the  reserve  fund,  and  when 
such  reserve  fund  shall  have  reached  10  per  cent  of  the  paid-up  cap¬ 
ital  the  whole  of  such  surplus  profits  will  go  to  the  tenants’  benefit 
account.  The  account  is  applied  for  the  benefit  of  tenants  in  such 
manner  as  the  directors  think  fit,  but  at  present  it  is  devoted  to  the 
maintenance  of  a  library.  In  one  year  a  rebate  of  two  weeks’  rent  was 
made  to  the  tenants  out  of  the  fund. 

PEABODY  DONATION  FUND,  LONDON. 

The  capital  for  this  fund  was  recruited  from  three  gifts  and  a  bequest 
from  the  late  George  Peabody  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  hous¬ 
ing  of  working  people  of  London.  In  1862  Mr.  Peabody  gave  £150,000 
($729,975),  known  as  the  first  trust;  in  1866  £100,000  ($486,650),  inl868 
£100,000  ($486,650),  and  at  his  death  he  left  a  legacy  of  £150,000 
($729,975),  these  three  sums  constituting  the  second  trust,  making  a 
total  for  both  trusts  of  £500,000  ($2,433,250).  A  few  years  ago  £12,000 
($58,398)  were  given  anonymously.  The  total  amount  of  the  fund  at  the 
end  of  the  last  fiscal  year  (December  31,  1893)  was  £1,110,908  19s.  4d. 
($5,406,238.49).  The  sum  of  £610,908 19s.  4d.  ($2,972,988.49)  represents 
moneys  received  for  rent  and  interest.  The  capital  expenditure  for  land 
and  buildings  to  the  end  of  1893  was  £1,242,048  2s.  lid.  ($6,044,427.30). 
The  net  earnings,  equal  from  the  beginning  to  from  3^  to3£  per  cent  on 
the  accrued  capital,  have  been  placed  to  the  credit  of  the  capital  fund. 
Since  the  commencement  of  operations  in  1864,  £390,000  ($1,897,935) 
have  been  borrowed,  mostly  from  the  public  works  loan  commissioners, 
upon  which  interest  at  3£  and  3f  per  cent  has  been  paid.  The  sum  of 
£255,000  ($1,240,957.50)  had  been  repaid  up  to  the  end  of  the  last 
fiscal  year.  The  following  table  exhibits  in  a  variety  of  detail  the  fiscal 
operations  of  the  donation  fund  during  the  year  1891 : 


232  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


OPERATIONS  OF  THE  PEABODY  DONATION  FUND,  1891. 

[Furnished  by  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  fund.  Apparent  errors  are  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
shillings  aud  pence  were  disregarded  in  making  up  the  statement.] 


Mar¬ 

ginal 

num¬ 

ber. 

Locality. 

Date  of  opening. 

Blocks. 

Tene¬ 

ments. 

1 

Rooms. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

March,  1864 . 

3 

58 

124 

October,  1865 . 

9 

293 

632 

January,  1807 . 

4 

199 

416 

January,  1869 . 

5 

146 

359 

5 

April,  1870 . 

4 

67 

132 

6 

7 

July,  1875 . 

6 

.  72 

144 

August,  1877 . 

9 

274 

575 

40 

1, 109 

2,  382 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

July,  1871 . 

19 

367 

772 

April,  1875 . 

16 

352 

736 

January,  1876 . 

12 

264 

6C0 

August,  1876 . 

29 

527 

1, 282 

May,  1881 . 

11 

286 

628 

September,  1881... 

February,  1882 _ 

July,  1882 . 

5 

146 

362 

13 

347 

808 

15 

15 

396 

861 

16 

17 

April,  1883 . 

33 

843 

1,878 

June,  1884 . 

11 

228 

514 

18 

February,  1885 _ 

8 

205 

450 

172 

3, 961 

8,891 

19 

40 

1,109 

2,382 

8,  891 

20 

172 

3, 961 

212 

5, 070 

11,  273 

Mar- 

Expenditure 

ginal 

Locality. 

Total  income. 

num¬ 

ber. 

Rates. 

Insurance. 

Water. 

i 

Spitalfields . 

$5, 250.  95 

$311.46 

$34.  06 

$238. 46 

2 

Islington . 

16,  278.  44 

2, 180. 19 

145. 99 

452.  58 

3 

Shadwell . 

8, 540.  71 

1,  202. 03 

97.33 

267.  66 

4 

Westminster . . 

9,  270.  68 

1, 124. 16 

73. 00 

282.  26 

5 

Chelsea . 

3,  075.  63 

540  18 

175. 19 

6 

Bermondsey . . . . . 

3,  216.  76 

510  08 

87.  60 

7 

Old  Pye  street . 

15, 976. 72 

1, 76E  67 

87. 60 

476. 92 

8 

Interest  . 

6, 925. 03 

9 

Expenses  of  management . 

68,  534.  92 

7, 630. 67 

437. 98 

1, 980.  67 

10 

Blackfriars  road . . . 

18,  770.  09 

2,  438. 12 

121.  66 

476.  92 

11 

Stamford  street . 

19, 733. 66 

2,  846.  90 

141.13 

506. 12 

12 

Southwark  street . 

15,  621.47 

1,  562. 15 

87.60 

515. 85 

13 

Pimlico . 

34,  007. 10 

4, 228.  99 

209. 26 

1, 158.  23 

14 

Whitechapel. . 

17,  042. 48 

2,  564. 64 

111.93 

437.  98 

15 

Bedfordbury . 

9,947.13 

1,  552. 41 

58.40 

282.  26 

16 

Great  Wild  street . 

22, 113.38 

3,  576.  88 

121.  66 

569.  38 

17 

Orchard  street . 

24,  931.08 

2.  895.  57 

136.  26 

676.44 

18 

W  bitecross  street . 

53,  293. 04 

7,  693.  94 

277.  39 

1,250.  69 

19 

Clerkenwell . 

14,  867. 16 

2, 019.  60 

82. 73 

350. 39 

20 

Little  Coram  street . 

13, 412. 07 

2,  258.  05 

63.  26 

345. 52 

21 

Interest . 

22 

Expenses  of  management . 

243, 738.  66 

33,  637.  25 

1, 411. 28 

6,  569. 78 

23 

First  trust . 

68,  534.  92 

7,  630.  67 

437. 98 

1, 980.  67 

24 

Second  trust . 

243, 738.  66 

33,  637.  25 

1, 411.  28 

6,  569. 78 

312,273.58 

41, 267. 92 

1, 849. 26 

8, 550. 45 

CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


233 


K 


OPERATIONS  OF  THE  PEABODY  DONATION  FUND,  1801. 

[Furnished  by  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  fund.  Apparent  errors  are  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
shillings  and  pence  were  disregarded  in  making  up  the  statement.] 


Cost. 

Area 

(square 

feet). 

Mean  * 
population. 

“Empties.” 

Bad 

debts. 

Mar¬ 

ginal 

num¬ 

ber. 

Land. 

Buildings. 

Total. 

$17, 222.  54 

$116,  353. 15 

$133,  575.69 

13, 682 

240 

$14. 60 

$1.22 

1 

54, 405.  87 

271,520. 37 

325, 992.  24 

70,  000 

1, 166 

399.  05 

7.79 

2 

12,  550.  70 

197,  409.  57 

209,  900.  27 

44, 300 

700 

121.66 

15. 39 

3 

59,  807.  08 

163,  957.  25 

223, 824.  93 

23,  500 

605 

82.  73 

9.  97 

4 

22,  540.  49 

49,  292.  78 

71,839.27 

13,616 

219 

14.  60 

23. 97 

5 

23,  291.  07 

39,  744. 71 

63, 035.  78 

27,  000 

249 

462.  32 

40.  57 

6 

69,  303. 83 

211,283. 96 

280,  587.  79 

43, 000 

1,  004 

97.  33 

11.50 

7 

259,  248. 18 

1, 049,  567.  79 

1,308,815.97 

235,  098 

4, 183 

1, 192.  29 

110.41 

66,  748.  91 

277,220.  17 

343, 969. 08 

125. 000 

1, 344 

38.  93 

8 

92,  705.  22 

282. 821.  51 

375, 586. 73 

90, 000 

1,321 

68.  13 

9 

88, 857.  42 

230, 555.  30 

319,412. 72 

65, 849 

1,067 

87.60 

10 

79, 723. 00 

570, 104.  01 

649, 887.  01 

173, 390 

2,194 

184. 93 

12.41 

11 

50, 100.  62 

280,  816.  52 

330, 917. 14 

68,  955 

1,117 

243.  32 

29.  38 

12 

45, 161. 12 

158,  224.  51 

203,  385.  63 

31,  545 

029 

19.  46 

13 

96]  930. 95 

339,  311.  85 

436,  242. 80 

63, 360 

1,418 

29.  20 

5.05 

14 

106,819.  08 

383,  655. 39 

490,  475. 07 

81,641 

1,455 

73.  00 

15 

193, 521.  24 

707,  150.  19 

960,671.43 

147,  127 

3, 806 

403. 92 

57.01 

16 

62, 889.  78 

233,  358.  41 

296,  248. 19 

45. 560 

917 

170.  33 

18.79 

17 

109,  496.  25 

179,  690.  65 

289, 186. 90 

54,500 

832 

82. 73 

18 

993,  014. 19 

3, 702,  968.  51 

4, 695,  982. 70 

946, 927 

16, 100 

1,401.55 

123.  24 

259,248. 18 

1,049,  567.79 

1,308,815.97 

235,  098 

4, 183 

1,  192.29 

110.41 

19 

993, 014. 19 

3, 702,  908.  51 

4,  695,  982.  70 

940,  927 

16,100 

1,401.55 

123. 24 

20 

1, 252, 262.  37 

4,  752,  536. 30 

6, 004, 798.  67 

1, 182, 025 

20, 283 

2,  593.  84 

233.  65 

Expenditure. 

Percentage  of 
expenditure 
of  income. 

Net  profit 
(per  cent). 

Mar¬ 

ginal 

num¬ 

ber. 

Gas. 

Wages. 

Repairs. 

Sundries. 

Total. 

$43.  80 

$306. 59 

$627. 78 

$102.  20 

$1,069.  21 

31.76 

2.  68 

1 

257.  92 

1,  060.  90 

3,  985.  66 

407. 18 

8,  555. 31 

52. 55 

2.37 

2 

111.93 

832. 17 

1, 220.  36 

326.  06 

4,  058.  06 

47. 52 

2.  13 

3 

120. 53 

452.  58 

875.  97 

306.  59 

3,241.09 

34.98 

2.  09 

4 

48.  67 

321. 19 

335.  79 

92.  46 

1,508.01 

49. 15 

2. 18 

5 

48.  07 

408.  79 

2,  029.  33 

1 50.  80 

3, 236.  22 

100.  06 

6 

243.  32 

773. 77 

1, 391. 82 

1,051.16 

5, 780.  27 

30.  22 

3.03 

7 

8 

2, 272.  06 

9 

880.  84 

4,155.  99 

10,472.71 

2,  490.  51 

30,  328.  03 

44.25 

2.55 

301.72 

900.  30 

3,  255.  09 

272.  52 

7, 760.  93 

41.  38 

3.20 

10 

257.  93 

837. 04 

3.  241.09 

248. 19 

8,  078.  39 

40.  94 

3. 10 

11 

218. 99 

837.  04 

2,  486.  78 

282.  20 

5,  990.  60 

38.  34 

3.02 

12 

574. 25 

1, 386.  95 

2,  603. 57 

593.71 

10,  754.97 

31.63 

3.50 

13 

296.  80 

905. 17 

2,  350.  52 

476.  92 

7,  139.  16 

41.89 

2.99 

14 

141. 13 

403.  92 

1,  153.  36 

141.13 

3,  727.  74 

37. 58 

3. 06 

15 

321.  19 

793.  24 

3, 036.  70 

321.  19 

8,  740.  23 

39.  52 

3. 07 

16 

369.  85 

895.  44 

3,  036.  70 

491.51 

8, 506.  04 

34.  12 

3. 35 

17 

851.64 

2,112.00 

4,  725.  37 

861.37 

17,777.32 

33.36 

3.70 

18 

262.  79 

802.  97 

3,  474.  68 

306.  59 

7,  299.  75 

49. 09 

2. 56 

19 

189.  79 

715. 37 

710.  51 

267.  00 

4.  550.  18 

33.  94 

3.  06 

20 

42,  859.  27 

21 

4;  413.  92 

22 

3,  780. 14 

10, 589. 50 

30,  074.  97 

4,  263. 05 

137,  605. 16 

56.46 

3.05 

880.  84 

4,155.  99 

10, 472.  71 

2,  496.  51 

30, 328. 03 

44. 25 

2.  55 

23 

3, 780. 14 

10,  589. 50 

30,  074. 97 

4,  203.  05 

137,  605. 16 

56.46 

3.  05 

24 

4,  666. 98 

14,  745.  49 

40,  547.  08 

6,  759. 50 

167,  933. 19 

53. 78 

2. 90 

234  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  estates  belonging  to  the  Peabody  donation  fund  at  the  end  of 
1893  provided  11,273  rooms,  not  counting  bathrooms,  laundries,  and 
washhouses.  The  rooms  comprised  5,070  separate  tenements,  namely, 
75  of  four  rooms,  1,787  of  three  rooms,  2,404  of  two  rooms,  and  804  of  one 
room.  Two  blocks  of  buildings,  containing  50  and  60  rooms,  respect¬ 
ively,  are  now  in  course  of  erection.  The  regular  census  of  occupants 
at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  showed  that  19,937  persons  were  in  resi¬ 
dence.  This  number  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  average  of  recent 
years,  the  reason  being  that  extensive  structural  alterations  were  being 
made  in  one  of  the  large  buildings. 

The  rentals  paid  for  the  different  classes  of  accommodation  in  the 
several  estates  appear  in  the  following  table  (the  figures  including  free 
use  of  water,  laundries,  sculleries,  and  bathrooms) : 


KENTS  CHAKGED  PER  WEEK  IN  THE  VARIOUS  GROUPS  OF  BUILDINGS  BELONGING 

TO  THE  PEABODY  DONATION  FUND. 


Locality  of  estate. 


Shad  well _ _ 

Chelsea . . 

Islington . 

Spitalflelds . 

Bermondsey . 

Westminster . 

Old  Pye  street . 

Blackfriars  road . . . 
Stamford  street. . . . 
Southwark  street. . 

Pimlico . 

Whitechapel . 

Bedfordhury . 

Great  Wild  street. . 

Orchard  street . 

Whitecross  street  . 

Clerkenwell . 

Little  Coram  street 


One  room. 

Two  rooms. 

Three  rooms. 

Four  rooms. 

$0. 49  to  $0. 55 

$0.  79  to  $0. 85 

$1.  03  to  $1. 10 

.  55  to 

61 

.85  to 

.97 

1. 10  to 

1. 16 

.  61  to 

73 

.  79  to 

1.  22 

1. 22  to 

1.58 

61 

.85  to 

.97 

1. 10  to 

1.  22 

61 

.97  to 

1.  03 

1.  22  to 

1.34 

.61  to 

79 

.97  to 

1.34 

1.  22  to 

1.64 

.  61  to 

73 

.85  to 

1.  22 

1. 22  to 

1.52 

.  61  to 

73 

.91  to 

1. 10 

1. 16  to 

1.40 

.  67  to 

73 

1. 03  to 

1. 10 

1.  22  to 

1.  40 

73 

1. 03  to 

1. 16 

1.  28  to 

1.40 

.  67  to 

73 

1. 10  to 

1.46 

1. 40  to 

1.83 

$1.83 

73 

1.  03  to 

1. 16 

1.  28  to 

1.46 

.  67  to 

79 

1. 22  to 

1.28 

1.  34  to 

1.58 

$1.70  to  1.83 

.  61  to 

73 

1. 03  to 

1.22 

1. 22  to 

1.58 

.  67  to 

79 

1. 03  to 

1.  34 

1.  28  to 

1.  76 

1.83 

.  61  to 

85 

1. 03  to 

1.28 

1. 40  to 

1. 58 

1.76  to  1.83 

.61  to 

73 

1. 10  to 

1.28 

1.  46  to 

1.  64 

.  61  to 

73 

1. 22  to 

1. 28 

1. 52  to 

1.58 

The  average  rent  of  each  tenement  was  4s.  9^d.  ($1.16)  per  week,  and 
of  each  room  2s.  lfd.  (52  cents).  The  average  weekljf  earnings  of  the 
head  of  each  family  in  residence  was  £1  3s.  7^d.  ($5.75).  Twenty  per 
cent  would  therefore  appear  to  be  the  average  proportion  of  wages  of 
the  head  of  the  family  going  for  rent.  Rents  are  about  25  per  cent 
less  than  for  fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  This 
represents  the  average  of  all  the  estates.  In  some  cases  there  is  a 
much  greater  disparity  in  the  proportions.  The  employments  of  the 
heads  of  tenant  families  would  indicate  that  a  fair  proportion  of  arti¬ 
sans  of  different  sorts  had  found  their  way  into  the  buildings.  In  order 
to  make  clear  the  status  of  residents,  the  Peabody  trustees  each  year 
cause  a,  census  of  occupations  to  be  made.  The  following  table  shows 
the  nature  of  the  employments  of  the  heads  of  all  families  at  the  end 
of  1893: 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


235 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  BUILDINGS  BELONGING  TO  THE 

PEABODY  DONATION  FUND,  1893. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

16 

27 

100 

Book  folders . 

45 

Boot  and  shoe  makers. . .. 

45 

31 

27 

Brewers’  men . 

120 

33 

6 

Butchers . 

17 

20 

37 

271 

64 

Cellarmen . 

40 

Charwomen . 

295 

Checkers . 

29 

Cigar  makers . 

10 

Cloth  workers . 

15 

Coachmen  and  stablemen . 
Cooks . 

100 

28 

12 

Costermongers . 

17 

Engine  men . 

40 

Engravers  . . 

9 

Farriers . . 

6 

Firemen  . 

22 

Florists  . . 

8 

Occupation. 


25 

15 

Gardeners . 

7 

18 

Glass  cutters . 

10 

Hatters  . . . 

16 

Harness  makers . 

9 

15 

Laborers . 

679 

20 

33 

18 

Letter  carriers,  etc . 

95 

18 

Machinists . 

72 

Mangle  women . . 

27 

26 

Messengers . 

101 

41 

6 

Needle  women . 

259 

46 

22 

122 

Packing-case  makers _ 

16 

59 

27 

1*1  umbers . . 

10 

Police  constables . 

195 

Occupation. 

X  um¬ 
ber. 

Porters . 

529 

Printers . 

128 

Sailors . . . 

19 

Scavengers . 

14 

Scripture  readers . 

6 

Servants . 

89 

Shirt  cutters . 

8 

Shopmen . . . 

77 

Smiths . 

48 

Soldiers . 

23 

Stevedores . 

12 

Stokers . 

29 

Storekeepers . 

•  5 

Tailors . 

97 

Ticket  collectors . 

10 

Tide  waiters . 

6 

Timekeepers . 

17 

Tin-plate  workers . 

15 

Travelers . 

15 

Turners . 

7 

Type  founders . 

7 

Umbrella  makers . 

14 

Upholsterers . . . 

15 

Various  handicrafts . 

37 

Waiters . 

OH 

Warehouse  laborers . 

176 

Watchmen . 

40 

Wheelwrights . 

9 

The  tenements  of  the  Peabody  trust  are  much  sought  after.  The  per 
cent  of  unoccupied  tenements  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  0.S5  of  the 
whole  number.  In  one  instance,  the  Bedfordbury  estate,  comprising 
146  tenements,  2,500  persons  applied  for  accommodation  before  the 
buildings  were  opened.  The  loss  of  rental  resulting  from  unoccupied 
tenements  is  comparatively  slight.  In  1891  it  was  £533  ($2,593.84). 
Rents  are  paid  weekly,  and  in  advance,  at  the  office  of  the  superintend¬ 
ent.  One  week’s  notice  must  be  given  of  intention  to  quit.  The  trust 
is  liberal  in  dealing  with  persons  in  arrears  where  good  cause  exists, 
but  if  arrearages  are  without  reason,  notice  is  at  once  served  upon  the 
tenant,  who,  if  recalcitrant,  is  ejected  under  process  of  law,  which  con¬ 
sumes  at  least  five  weeks’  time.  Arrearages  may  be  carried  over  from 
one  week  to  another,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  ultimately  paid.  The  total 
sum  lost  from  nonpayment  of  these  arrearages  during  the  fiscal  year 
1891  was  only  £48  Os.  3d.  ($233.65).  The  price  of  rental  has  remained 
the  same  during  the  last  ten  years. 

No  computation  as  to  the  average  duration  of  tenancy  has  been  made, 
but  as  a  rule  there  is  great  stability.  Tenants  occupying  three  and 
four  room  tenements  are  almost  invariably  permanent.  There  is  greater 
mobility  among  the  occupants  of  one  and  two  room  tenements.  The 
following  form  of  application  is  filled  out  by  prospective  tenants: 

THE  PEABODY  BUILDINGS:  APPLICATION  FOR  DWELLINGS. 

1.  Name - . 

2.  Occupation - . 

3.  Weekly  wages - . 


SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


236 


4.  Address - . 

5.  Number  of  rooms  required - . 

6.  Whether  married  or  single - . 

7.  Number  of  children  residing  with  parents - . 

8.  Ages  of  boys - . 

9.  Ages  of  girls - . 

10.  Have  parents  and  children  all  been  vaccinated - . 

11.  Have  all  past  childhood  been  revaccinated - . 

12.  Whether  in  receipt  of  parish  relief - . 

13.  Do  you  agree  to  abide  by  the  rules - . 

14.  Employer’s  name - . 

15.  Address - . 

16.  Applicant’s  signature - . 

17.  Date - . 


On  the  reverse  side  are  printed  the  rules,  which  the  tenant  obligates 
himself  to  obey.  The  text  of  these  requirements  follows: 


1.  No  application  for  rooms  will  be  entertained  unless  every  member 
of  the  applicant’s  family  has  been  vaccinated,  and  in  the  case  of  those 
past  childhood,  revaccinated.  The  applicant  must  also  agree  to  have 
any  case  of  infectious  disease  occurring  in  his  rooms  removed  to  the 
proper  hospital. 

2.  The  rents  for  the  current  week  to  be  paid  at  the  superintendent’s 
office  on  Mondays,  from  9  a.  m.  till  G  p.  m. 

3.  No  arrears  of  rent  will  be  allowed. 

4.  The  passages,  steps,  closets,  laundry,  and  lavatory  windows  must 
be  washed  every  Saturday  and  swept  every  morning  before  10  o’clock. 
This  must  be  done  by  the  tenants  in  turn.  * 

5.  Washing  must  be  done  only  in  the  laundry.  Tenants  will  not  be 
permitted  to  use  the  laundries  for  the  washing  of  any  clothes  but  their 
own.  No  clothes  shall  be  hung  out. 

6.  No  carpets,  mats,  etc.,  can  be  permitted  to  be  beaten  or  shaken  after 
10  o’clock  in  the  morning.  Refuse  must  not  be  thrown  from  the  doors 
or  windows. 

7.  Tenants  must  pay  all  costs  for  the  repairs,  etc.,  of  windows,  keys,  I 
grates,  and  boilers  broken  or  damaged  in  their  rooms'. 

8.  Children  will  not  be  allowed  to  play  on  the  stairs,  in  the  passages, 
or  in  the  laundries. 

9.  Dogs  must  not  be  kept  on  the  premises. 

10.  Tenants  are  required  to  distemper  and  whitewash  their  rooms  at 
least  once  a  year  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  trustees  or  their  agents,  but 
must  not  paper,  paint,  or  drive  nails  into  the  walls. 

11.  No  tenant  will  be  permitted  to  underlet  or  take  in  lodgers,  or  to 
keep  a  shop  of  any  kind. 

12.  The  acceptance  of  any  gratuity  by  the  superintendent  or  porters 
Irom  tenants  or  applicants  for  rooms  will  lead  to  their  immediate  dis¬ 
missal. 


13.  Disorderly  and  intemperate  tenants  will  receive  immediate  notice 

to  quit. 

14.  The  gas  will  be  turned  off  at  11  p.  m. 

15.  Tenants  are  required  to  report  to  the  superintendent  any  births, 
deaths,  or  infectious  diseases,  such  as  smallpox,  measles,  diphtheria, 
and  scarlet,  typhoid,  and  typhus  fevers  occurring  in  their  rooms.  Any 
tenant  not  complying  with  this  rule  will  receive  notice  to  quit. 


PIMLICO  BUILDINGS,  PEABODY  TRUST, 


LONDON,  ENGLAND— PLAN  OF  GROUND  FLOOR, 


BLOCK  S,  PEABODY  AVENUE,  SHOWING  ONE  AND  FOUR 


Plan  No.  30  a. 


ROOM  DWELLINGS. 


PIMLICO  BUILDINGS,  PEABODY  TRUST,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— PLAN  OF  FOURTH  FLOOR,  BLOCK  S,  PEABODY  AVENUE,  SHOWING  TWO  AND  THREE  ROOM  DWELLINGS. 

Plan  No.  30  b. 


s  * 


PIMLICO  BUILDINGS,  PEABODY  TRUST,  LONDON,  ENGLAND— DRAINAGE  SYSTEM 

Plan  No.  30  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


237 


As  a  rule,  the  men  chosen  for  porters,  janitors,  and  assistants  are 
army,  navy,  or  police  pensioners.  The  estates  of  the  Peabody  trust 
are  conveniently  situated  with  reference  to  the  working  locality  of  occu¬ 
pants.  Taking  the  Pimlico  buildings  as  an  example,  22  heads  of  fami¬ 
lies  did  work  at  home,  72  had  to  go  less  than  one-fourth  of  a  mile,  176 
from  one-fourtli  to  one-half  of  a  mile,  99  from  one-half  to  three-fourths 
of  a  mile,  67  from  three-fourths  to  one  mile,  74  from  1  to  1£  miles,  8 
from  14  to  2  miles,  4  from  2  to  2£  miles,  3  from  2£  to  3  miles,  1  from  3 
to  3£  miles,  and  1  8  miles,  to  their  places  of  regular  employment.  The 
overwhelming  majority,  it  will  be  seen,  were  within  less  than  a  mile 
from  their  work.  Those  going  a  greater  distance  pay  2d.  (4  cents)  each 
way  for  a  trip  by  boat,  omnibus,  or  workmen’s  train,  with  the  exception 
of  the  last  two  enumerated,  who  go  by  railway  at  an  expense  of  4d. 
(8  cents)  each  way. 

Baths  and  laundries  have  been  provided  in  all  the  Peabody  buildings, 
but  as  cold  water  only  is  supplied  to  baths  they  are  but  little  used, 
notwithstanding  that  no  fee  is  charged. 

If  there  is  one  point  more  than  another  upon  which  the  Peabody  trus¬ 
tees  feel  a  pardonable  pride  it  is  the  salubrity  and  convenience  of  their 
dwelling  accommodations.  Abundant  evidence  of  their  claim  is  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  official  returns.  In  1893  the  birth  rate  was  35.1  per  1,000, 
or  4.1  per  1,000  above  that  of  all  London.  The  death  rate,  including 
residents  who  died  in  hospitals,  was  17.6  per  1,000,  or  3.7  per  1,000  below 
the  average  of  the  metropolis.  The  infant  mortality  was  126.4  in  each 
-1,000  births,  or  37.9  below  that  of  London.  These  figures  speak  for 
themselves  and  need  no  further  comment. 

After  the  recital  of  these  facts,  which  refer  to  the  operations  of  the 
trust  as  a  whole,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  describe  in  greater  detail 
one  of  the  estates.  The  buildings  selected  are  situated  at  Pimlico,  and 
plans  of  the  ground  floor  and  fourth  story,  as  well  as  a  section  of  the 
drainage  system,  are  given  (plans  Nos.  30  A,  30  B,  and  30  O). 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  is  1,240  feet  and  its  depth  140  feet.  About  37 
per  cent  of  the  total  superficial  area  is  covered  with  buildings.  The 
open  space  is  found  both  in  front  and  rear,  and  is  paved.  It  is  partly 
designed  for  recreative  purposes,  though  no  portion  of  it  is  covered  for 
use  in  rainy  weather.  The  buildings  are  four  and  five  stories  high, 
respectively,  and  are  built  of  brick.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls 
is  18  inches  at  the  foundation  and  9  inches  at  the  top.  The  interior 
walls  dividing  the  rooms  from  one  another  are  44  inches  thick.  The 
roofing  is  of  slate  and  the  staircases  of  stone.  There  are  no  other  spe¬ 
cial  arrangements  for  rendering  the  buildings  fireproof.  The  buildings 
have  cellars  payed  in  stone.  The  dwellings  are  not  entirely  self-con¬ 
tained,  the  water-closet  being  approached  from  the  landing  opposite  the 
laundry  and  each  one  being  utilized  by  two  families.  The  water-closets 
are  trapped  at  the  foot,  each  one  ventilated  by  a  pipe  running  to  the 


238  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

roof,  and  they  are  provided  with  waste- water  preventers.  A  tank  hold¬ 
ing  two  gallons,  and  situated  near  the  ceiling,  is  filled  automatically; 
when  the  closet  is  used  the  tank  is  opened  and  the  contents  flush  and 
clean  the  bowl.  Ventilation  has  been  well  looked  after.  Under  the 
fireplaces  there  are  ventilating  bricks  communicating  with  tubes  lead¬ 
ing  directly  to  the  outer  air.  There  are  also  ventilating  bricks  over 
doors  communicating  with  the  passages,  and,  when  over  the  windows, 
with  the  outside  air.  Within  each  tenement  there  is  a  cooking  range 
and  a  box  for  fuel  storage  which  will  hold  500  j)oiinds  of  coal.  The  gar¬ 
bage  receptacle  is  in  the  basement.  A  pantry  has  been  fitted  over  the 
coal  box.  There  are  no  clothespresses,  lamps,  chandeliers,  mirrors,  or 
interior  decorations  of  any  sort.  Externally  nearly  all  the  Peabody 
buildings  bear  a  substantial  and  somewhat  grim  like  appearance.  There 
has  been  no  attempt  at  decoration,  the  aesthetic  element  having  been 
disregarded,  it  is  claimed,  because  it  was  not  desired  to  attract  a  high 
grade  of  tenants.  In  the  Pimlico  buildings  there  is  some  attempt  at 
external  decoration,  but  this  was  done  in  order  to  overcome  the  objection 
of  neighbors  and  to  satisfy  certain  conditions  prescribed  by  the  original 
owner  of  the  site. 

The  Peabody  trustees  have  been  charged  with  not  responding  in  the 
fullest  degree  to  the  intentions  of  the  founder,  in  housing  a  higher  grade 
of  tenants  than  was  originally  designed.  It  can  not  be  maintained  that 
the  average  earnings  of  heads  of  families,  as  previously  given,  would 
indicate  that  the  better  element  among  laborers  was  received  as  ten¬ 
ants,  still  it  is  undeniably  true  that  the  figures  are  too  high  for  the 
casual  laborer  and  the  poorer  elements  among  the  artisans,  which  it 
was  intended  by  Mr.  Peabody  to  provide  for. 

Sir  Curtis  M.  Lampson,  one  of  the  trustees,  in  his  evidence  before 
the  English  royal  commission  on  housing  of  the  working  classes,  in 
1884,  gives  an  interesting  analysis  of  the  tenants  with  reference  to 
their  economic  status.  In  141  families  the  head  earned  under  12s. 
($2.92)  per  week;  in  294  families  the  earnings  were  from  12s.  to  15s. 
($2.92  to  $3.65)  per  week;  in  129  families,  from  15s.  to  17s.  Cd.  ($3.65 
to  $4.26);  in  446  families,  from  17s.  6d.  to  20s.  ($4.26  to  $4.87);  in  1,680 
families,  from  20s.  to  25s.  ($4.87  to  $6.08);  in  1,499  families,  from  25s.  to 
30s.  ($6.08  to  $7.30);  while  the  heads  of  118 families  earned  30s.  ($7.30) 
and  over.  It  very  frequently  happens  that  the  economic  situation  of 
the  husband  and  father  materially  improves  after  he  has  taken  up 
residence  in  the  buildings.  It  would  undoubtedly  be  a  hardship  if, 
owing  to  these  circumstances,  he  should  be  obliged  to  leave.  There  is 
a  great  deal  of  difficulty  in  dealing  with  such  cases,  and  when  one  con¬ 
siders  that  the  stability  of  occupation  has  been  so  great  one  can  easily 
see  why  the  earnings  of  heads  of  tenant  families  should  appear  rela¬ 
tively  high,  notwithstanding  that  a  careful  selection  was  made  at  the 
beginning  anil  the  economically  poor  given  the  preference. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


239 


GUINNESS  TRUST,  LONDON. 

The  Guinness  trust  is  due  to  the  beneficence  of  Lord  Iveagh 
(Edward  Cecil  Guinness)f  who  in  recent  years  made  a  gift  of  £250,000 
($1,216,625)  to  imjjro  ve  t  he  living  environments  of  working  people.  Two 
hundred  thousand  pounds  ($973,300)  was  to  be  spent  in  London  and 
£50,000  ($243,325)  in  Dublin.  By  the  terms  of  the  trust  the  poorer 
element  only  among  the  working  people  was  to  be  accepted  as  ten¬ 
ants,  and  the  net  returns  were  to  be  applied  to  perpetuating  the  work. 
Provision  for  3,245  people  has  already  been  made  in  London. 

The  Brandon  street,  Walworth,  model  tenements  have  been  selected 
for  description.  Two  parallel  blocks  have  been  erected,  each  30  feet  in 
depth  and  having  a  frontage  of  218  feet  upon  a  lot  having  a  frontage 
of  250  feet  and  a  depth  of  120  feet.  Only  about  40  per  cent  of  the 
ground,  therefore,  has  been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  represented 
by  a  frontage  of  6  feet,  measuring  from  the  pavement,  a  courtyard 
averaging  34  feet  between  the  two  blocks,  and  another  averaging  20 
feet  in  the  rear.  The  courts  are  paved  with  granolithic.  The  open  space 
is  entirely  given  up  to  the  free  use  of  occupants,  and  a  part  of  it  has 
been  converted  into  a  small  shelter,  with  seats,  where  children  may 
play  during  rainy  weather.  Shrubs,  flowers,  plants,  etc.,  have  been 
disposed  in  certain  parts. 

The  buildings  are  of  brick,  five  stories  in  height.  The  thickness  of 
the  exterior  walls  is  14  inches.  The  roofing  is  of  wood,  covered  with 
slate.  Staircases  are  made  of  concrete;  and  iron  girders  supporting 
concrete  floors  7  inches  thick  and  ladders  give  to  the  building  a  fire¬ 
proof  character,  and  guarantee  means  of  escape  in  special  exigencies. 
There  are  several  separate  street  entrances.  Four  or  five  families 
enter  their  dwellings  from  each  lauding.  The  passages  and  hallways 
are  finished  to  a  height  of  5  feet  in  white  glazed  brick  or  tiles,  which 
material  is  also  used  in  the  water-closets.  Not  more  than  one  door  from 
every  family  lodging  opens  directly  upon  the  stairway  or  hallway. 
Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with 
the  open  air.  Hit-and-miss  ventilators  have  been  provided,  and  also 
windows  with  a  very  deep  baseboard,  so  that  they  may  be  raised  2 h  or 
3  inches  without  permitting  a  direct  current  of  air  below  while  pro¬ 
viding  additional  circulation  through  the  aperture  made  where  the 
upper  and  lower  sections  ordinarily  come  together.  There  are  no  ven¬ 
tilating  transoms  over  the  doors.  Water-closets  exist  in  the  ratio  of  one 
to  each  two  tenements,  so  that  about  eight  persons,  on  the  average, 
use  a  single  closet.  Closets  are  situated  inside  the  building  on  each 
floor  landing  opposite  the  entrance  to  the  laundry.  They  are  of  mod¬ 
ern  pattern  in  every  way,  and  irreproachable  from  a  sanitary  point  of 
view.  The  plumbing  is  also  as  nearly  perfect  as  can  be  found.  Joints 
are  air-tight,  soil  pipes  are  ventilated,  and  traps  have  been  placed 
wherever  necessary.  All  the  sewer  pipes  in  the  yard  tend  toward  one 


240  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


distinct  center,  and  they  are  cleansed  regularly  by  a  powerful  auto¬ 
matic  forty-gallon  flush.  The  quantity  of  water  is  unlimited.  Light¬ 
ing  is  done  with  gas.  Tenauts  provide  their  own  heating.  Washing 
is  not  done  in  the  different  dAvellings.  A  laundry  for  each  four  tene¬ 
ments  has  been  placed  on  every  stair  landing.  Its  use  is  restricted  to 
one  family  for  one  day  in  the  week.  This  regulation  is  wholesome,  doing 
away  with  gossiping,  and  preventing  loss  of  clothes.  As  the  clothes 
of  no  two  families  are  in  one  tub,  the  chance  of  infection  in  case  of  sick¬ 
ness  is  to  some  extent  lessened.  Every  laundry  is  fitted  with  a  boiler, 
two  tubs  for  washing,  and  hooks  in  the  walls  for  drying  lines.  A  cook¬ 
ing  range  fitted  with  an  oven  has  been  placed  in  every  living  room.  A 
coal  box  holding  from  250  to  300  pounds  has  been  fitted  under  the 
larder.  Dust  shoots  are  on  each  floor,  and  in  every  living  room  there 
is  a  pantry  with  shelves,  hooks,  etc.  A  clothespress  with  shelves  and 
hooks  has  been  placed  in  every  bedroom.  There  is  also  a  fireplace  in 
each  of  the  bedrooms.  All  windows  have  Venetian  blinds.  Walls 
have  been  painted  a  salmon  color,  and  the  tiling  in  the  halls  presents  a 
fine  appearance.  Externally  the  general  appearance  of  the  buildings 
is  far  removed  from  the  dull,  stolid  look  so  common  to  model  dwellings. 

The  Brandon  street  model  buildings  contain  42  one-room  tenements, 
with  an  average  air  space  of  1,250  cubic  feet  each;  128  two-room  tene¬ 
ments,  with  a  space  of  2,082  cubic  feet  to  each,  and  20  three-room  tene¬ 
ments,  having  an  average  air  space  of  3,094  cubic  feet.  Many  of  the 
three-room  tenements  are  in  reality  large  two-room  tenements,  but  in 
order  to  cater  to  the  necessities  of  a  worthy  but  impecunious  class  which 
is  much  desired  for  tenants,  and  at  the  same  time  to  bring  about  the 
separation  of  the  sexes,  a  wooden  partition  (which  does  not  quite  reach 
to  the  ceiling)  divides  what  would  be  a  very  large  bedroom  into  two 
rooms  for  sleeping  purposes.  The  ceilings  are  8  feet  6  inches  high 
throughout.  In  single-room  tenements  a  man,  wife,  and  two  children 
whose  average  age  is  7  years,  are  allowed  as  tenants. 

The  rental  of  tenements  varies  somewhat  according  to  their  location 
in  the  different  stories.  One-room  tenements  on  the  first  and  second 
floors  rent  for  2s.  6d.  (01  cents)  weekly.  Similar  accommodation  on  the 
third  floor  costs  2s.  3d.  (55  cents) ;  on  the  fourth  floor,  Is.  9d.  (43  cents) ; 
on  the  fifth  floor,  Is.  Gd.  (37  cents)  weekly.  Two  room  tenements  on  the 
first  and  second  floors  cost  4s.  (97  cents)  weekly;  on  the  third  floor, 
3s.  9d.  (91  cents);  on  the  fourth,  3s.  3d.  (79  cents);  on 'the  fifth,  3s.  (73 
cents).  Three-room  tenements  rent  for  5s.  ($1.22)  per  week  on  the  first 
and  second  floors,  4s.  9d.  ($1.10)  on  the  third,  4s.  3d.  ($1.03)  on  the  fourth, 
and  4s.  (97  cents)  on  the  fifth.  An  extra  charge  is  made  for  use  of 
blinds,  baths,  chimney  sweeping,  hot-water  supply,  and  clubroom,  as 
follows:  One-room  tenements,  3d.  (6  cents)  per  week;  two-room  and 
three-room  tenements,  6d.  (12  cents)  per  week.  This  charge  is  not 
optional  with  the  tenant,  but  must  be  paid  in  every  case.  In  reality  it 
is  a  part  of  the  rental,  but  it  was  imposed  in  this  form  with  the  design 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


241 


of  causing  tliat  class  of  people  who  are  not  very  careful  in  their  per¬ 
sonal  habits  to  bathe,  and  to  patronize  the  clubroom.  The  fact  that 
this  sum  is  exacted  as  an  extra  charge  forcibly  strikes  the  tenant,  as  a 
rule,  about  the  second  week  of  his  occupancy.  It  is  always  printed 
upon  his  rental  receipt.  He  usually  enters  a  protest  against  this  exac¬ 
tion,  saying  that  he  does  not  care  to  use  the  bath  and  hot- water  supply 
or  to  go  to  the  clubroom.  He  is  told,  however,  that  the  company 
regrets  that  his  views  are  such,  but  that  as  it  has  gone  to  the  expense 
of  providing  these  accessories  it  must  be  indemnified.  Then,  as  a  rule, 
that  spirit  in  human  nature  which  declines  to  pay  something  without 
having  a  return  comes  upon  the  tenant  so  strongly  that  he  says,  “Well, 
if  I  must  pay  for  these  things  I  will  use  them.”  The  result  has  been 
a  most  satisfactory  patronage  of  baths,  a  growing  interest  in  the  club¬ 
room,  and  the  utilization  of  the  hot-water  supply  at  different  times 
of  the  day.  Housewives  have  found  this  latter  a  great  convenience, 
and  a  considerable  saving  as  well.  Where  a  cup  of  tea  or  coffee  is 
desired  for  the  midday  meal,  when  the  husband  is  away  from  home,  the 
housekeeper  formerly  had  to  waste  coal  by  building  a  fire  for  its  prepa¬ 
ration.  Now  she  may  walk  downstairs  at  certain  hours  and  get  as  large 
a  supply  of  hot  water  as  is  necessary.  The  bathing  of  children,  too,  lias 
been  greatly  encouraged  by  this  happy  expedient.  Capt.  T.  H.  Vickers, 
the  secretary  of  the  trust,  is  thoroughly  convinced  that  the  general 
method  adopted  in  thus  disguising  what  is  really  a  part  of  the  rent  as 
an  extra  charge  has  had  an  exceedingly  favorable  effect  upon  the  habits 
of  the  class  of  people  who  are  tenants.  A  marked  reformation  has 
been  noticed  after  a  few  weeks’  residence.  In  one  instance  several 
months  passed  before  anyone  entered  the  clubroom  in  the  evening. 
Finally  one  man  sneaked  in,  and  within  six  months  afterwards  there 
was  an  average  evening  attendance  of  about  33  per  cent  of  the  male 
heads  of  families. 

The  Guinness  trust  has  not  yet  completed  its  work  in  London.  Four 
different  estates  have  been  created,  containing  in  all  263  one-room,  541 
two-room,  and  139  three  room  tenements.  Three  thousand  two  hun¬ 
dred  and  forty-five  persons  were  housed  in  all  these  buildings  during 
the  fiscal  year  1893.  The  buildings  on  the  extension  of  the  Lever 
street  site,  toward  the  cost  of  which  the  Goldsmiths’  Company  has  given 
£25,000  ($121,662.50),  and  those  in  Vauxhall  Square  were  expected  to 
be  ready  for  occupancy  during  the  spring  of  1894.  Buildings  are  also 
in  course  of  erection  on  the  site  in  Page’s  Walk,  where  there  is  espe¬ 
cial  need  of  cheap  model  dwellings.  When  all  these  buildings  are 
completed  they  will  contain  1,875  separate  tenements  with  3,705  rooms. 
Only  about  half  the  accommodation  to  be  provided  was  ready  for  occu¬ 
pation  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1893. 

There  have  been  no  epidemics  in  any  of  the  buildings,  and  there  were 
73  deaths  and  129  births  among  tenants  during  the  year  1893. 


H.  Ex.  354 - 16 


242  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Tlie  total  capital  of  the  London  fund  December  31, 1893,  was  £252,341 
11s.  7d.  ($1,228,020.30).  Of  this  amount  £25,000  ($121,662.50)  came  as 
a  donation  from  the  Goldsmiths’  Company,  £200,000  ($973,300)  from 
the  original  gift  of  Lord  Iveagh,  while  the  remainder,  £27,341  11s.  7d. 
($133,057.80),  represents  accrued  income  from  rental  and  investments 
whicli  under  the  terms  of  the  trust  go  to  increase  the  capital  stock. 
Three  per  cent  is  the  net  profit.  This  is  an  admirable  showing,  con¬ 
sidering  the  low  rentals  which  have  been  charged,  but  it  is  stated  that 
though  the  tenants  are  poor  they  pay  rent  with  little  trouble,  and  that 
the  buildings  are  so  sought  after  that  out  of  945  tenements  there  were 
not  a  dozen  empty  during  1893.  The  borrowed  capital  amounts  to 
£14,048  12s.  Id.  ($68,367.53),  taken  mainly  from  the  Dublin  fund. 

The  total  amount  received  for  rent  from  the  Brandon  street  buildings 
during  the  fiscal  year  was  £1,857  Is.  ($9,037.33).  Bents  are  paid 
weekly  in  advance  to  the  superintendent  on  the  premises.  A  tenant 
must  give  one  week’s  notice  of  intention  to  quit.  The  total  sum  lost 
from  arrearages  of  rent  during  the  fiscal  year  was  a  little  less  than 
£20  ($97.33).  It  is  estimated  that  about  22  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of 
the  heads  of  families  is  paid  for  rent.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the 
conviction  is  voiced  that  the  poorest  people  are  the  best  to  pay.  Great 
care  is  exercised  in  ascertaining  the  financial  standing  of  prospective 
tenants.  It  has  been  determined  by  the  trustees  not  to  allow  the  object 
of  the  trust  to  be  diverted  from  the  intention  of  the  founders.  The 
poorer  strata  of  working  people  are  meant  to  be  benefited,  conse¬ 
quently  the  earnings  of  every  head  of  a  family  are  carefully  ascertained 
before  he  is  allowed  to  move  in.  At  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1892 
18s.  7d.  ($4.52)  per  week  represented  the  average  earnings  of  each  fam¬ 
ily — not  the  head  of  the  family,  but  the  whole  family  as  a  unit.  One 
year  later  (1893)  the  average  had  declined  to  18s.  Id.  ($4.40). 

The  conditions  of  occupation  are  set  forth  below.  They  are  given  in 
extenso  for  the  reason  that  they  have  special  interest.  This  class  of 
tenants  is  usually  considered  rather  difficult  to  deal  with,  and  as  a  rule 
experience  with  them  has  not  been  wholly  satisfactory: 

1.  The  tenant  agrees  to  act  in  accordance  with  the  following  con¬ 
ditions,  and  failure  to  do  so  shall  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  the  determi¬ 
nation  of  the  tenancy. 

2.  To  pay  a  deposit  of  3s.  (73  cents)  on  entering  upon  tenancy,  from 
which  deduction  will  be  made  for  damage  found  on  giving  up  posses¬ 
sion,  and  any  balance  left  will  be  returned  to  the  tenant.  The  decision 
of  the  superintendent  as  to  amount  of  deduction  to  be  final. 

3.  To  pay  the  rent  weekly  in  advance,  between  the  hours  of  9  a.  m. 
and  5  p.  m.  on  Mondays,  at  the  superintendent’s  ofiice.  No  arrears  of 
rent  will  be  allowed.  The  printed  form  of  receipt  issued  by  the  trust 
must  be  retained  by  the  tenant. 

4.  To  pay  on  demand  for  all  damage,  fixtures  removed,  and  injury  to 
the  premises  by  such  removal,  and  for  all  broken  panes  of  glass,  and 
broken  blinds,  tapes,  and  cords. 

5.  Not  to  sublet  any  portion  of  the  tenement  or  to  take  in  lodgers. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


243 


6.  Not  to  keep  any  animals  in  the  tenement. 

7.  Not  to  use  the  tenement  as  a  shop  for  the  sale  of  goods. 

8.  Not  to  sell  intoxicating  liquors  of  any  kind. 

9.  Not  to  misuse,  improperly  occupy,  be  guilty  of  or  allow  disoiderly 
or  intemperate  conduct  in  the  tenement,  nor  in  any  way  cause  annoy¬ 
ance  to  the  neighbors.  Drunken  and  disorderly  tenants  will  be  subject 
to  have  their  tenancy  terminated  immediately,  and  to  forfeit  the  rent 
paid. 

10.  To  keep  the  tenement  and  its  wiudows  clean,  and  color-wash  it 
once  a  year,  and  in  turn  with  other  tenants  on  the  same  floor,  to  clean 
the  water-closets,  laundries,  sinks,  windows,  passages,  landings,  walls, 
and  stairs,  to  the  floor  below,  and  if  on  the  ground  floor,  to  clean  as 
far  as  the  entrance.  The  stairs  and  passages  to  be  swept  daily,  and  on 
Saturday  washed  before  10  a.  m. 

11.  To  allow  the  landlords,  or  their  agents,  at  reasonable  hours,  to 
see  the  condition  of  the  rooms. 

12.  To  report  all  the  births,  deaths,  and  cases  of  infectious  disease 
to  the  superintendent  without  delay,  and  to  have  any  case  of  infectious 
disease  removed  to  the  proper  hospital.  All  removals  to  hospital  to  be 
reported  to  the  superintendent. 

13.  Notice  in  writing  on  either  side,  or  payment  of  a  week’s  rent  by 
tenant  in  lieu  of  notice,  shall  be  sufficient  to  determine  the  tenancy. 
All  notices  must  be  given  on  Monday  to  vacate  on  the  following  Sat¬ 
urday. 

14.  If  the  weekly  rent  is  not  paid  in  advance  when  due,  or  if  the 
tenant  does  not  quit  and  deliver  up  possession  according  to  notice,  the 
landlords,  or  their  agents,  shall  be  entitled  immediately  to  enter  upon, 
and  take,  and  resume  possession  of  the  premises,  and  to  eject,  expel, 
and  remove  the  tenant  and  all  occupiers  and  his  and  their  goods  there¬ 
from  without  any  legal  process,  and  as  effectually  as  any  sheriff’  might 
do  for  taking  possession  of  the  said  premises,  and  this  provision  shall 
be  sufficient  defense  to  any  proceeding  in  respect  of  any  such  posses¬ 
sion  being  so  resumed. 

15.  To  conform  to  the  general  rules  to  be  issued  by  the  landlords,  and 
posted  up  in  the  buildings,  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the 
tenants  generally. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  application  required  of  prospective 
tenants: 

1.  Name - . 

2.  Address - . 

3.  How  long  have  you  lived  at  your  last  address - . 

4.  Whether  married  or  single - . 

5.  Number  of  children  living  with  parents - . 

6.  Ages  of  boys,  last  birthday - . 

7.  Ages  of  girls,  last  birthday - . 

8.  Have  parents  and  children  all  been  vaccinated - . 

9.  Have  all  over  7  years  of  age  been  revaccinated - . 

10.  Whether  in  receipt  of  parish  relief - . 

11.  Occupation - . 

12.  Weekly  wages  earned  by  the  family - . 

13.  What  is  your  employer’s  name - . 

14.  What  is  his  address - . 

15.  Do  you  agree  to  abide  by  the  general  rules - „ 


244  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

After  this  application  has  been  filed  a  visit  is  made  to  the  person 
named  as  employer  and  the  facts  regarding  earnings  ascertained.  The 
tenant  is  then  visited  in  his  lodgings  and  general  notice  taken  of  his 
surroundings.  Selections  are  made  in  accordance  with  the  judgment 
of  the  superintendent. 

The  general  rules  made  to  insure  the  comfort  and  convenience  of 
tenants  are  included  in  the  following: 

1.  Anything  likely  to  choke  the  pipes  must  not  be  put  into  the  water- 
closets,  troughs,  sinks,  and  dust  shoots,  and  any  stoppage  should  be 
immediately  reported  to  the  superintendent.  Large  articles,  such  as 
old  boots,  hats,  tins,  etc.,  must  be  taken  down  to  the  dust  bin;  and, 
as  far  as  possible,  vegetable  and  all  other  refuse  should  be  burned. 

2.  Water  must  not  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  Any  leakage  must 
be  reported  to  the  superintendent  without  delay. 

3.  The  gas  will  be  lit  and  turned  off  by  the  porter,  and  no  tenant  is 
to  tamper  with  it;  any  escape  should  be  reported  to  the  superintendent 
at  once. 

4.  Carpets,  mats,  etc.,  are  not  to  be  cleaned  or  shaken  on  the  land¬ 
ings,  stairs,  or  passages,  but  only  in  the  yards  on  week  days  before 
10  a.  m. 

5.  Nothing  may  be  thrown  from  the  doors  or  windows. 

0.  Washing  is  not  to  be  taken  in  from  persons  not  living  in  the 
buildings. 

7.  Clothes  are  not  to  be  hung  out  of  the  windows  or  in  the  passages; 
they  should  be  dried  in  the  laundry. 

8.  Parents  are  to  warn  their  children  not  to  loiter  or  play  or  make  a 
noise  on  the  stairs,  landings,  or  passages.  Games  at  ball  or  tip- cat 
are  not  allowed  in  the  playground.  Parents  are  responsible  for  the  cost 
of  replacing  glass  broken  by  their  children. 

9.  Nails  or  screws  must  not  be  driven  into  the  walls  or  woodwork, 
except  at  a  distance  of  3  inches  from  the  ceiling. 

10.  Each  tenant  in  turn  will  have  the  use  of  the  laundry  on  his  floor 
on  one  day  in  the  week,  and  it  is  to  be  left  clean,  and  the  copper  dry, 
by  the  tenant.  The  tenant  will  have  the  key  of  the  laundry  for  the 
day  only,  and  will  be  responsible  for  leaving  the  key  on  the  same 
evening  with  the  superintendent. 

11.  Tenants  are  held  responsible  that  flowerpots  are  so  secured  as 
to  prevent  their  falling  from  the  windows. 

12.  In  dwellings  with  flat  roofs,  the  doors  leading  to  the  roofs  should 
be  carefully  secured,  to  prevent  access  by  strangers. 

13.  The  superintendent  and  porters  are  not  permitted  to  accept 
gratuities  from  tenants  or  applicants  for  rooms. 

14.  The  superintendent  is  instructed  to  prevent  overcrowding  and  to 
report  all  cases  of  families  too  large  for  the  accommodation  afforded  by 
any  tenement. 

15.  Tenants  are  to  report  to  the  superintendent  the  loss  of  keys.  A 
charge  of  2s.  (49  cents)  will  be  made  for  a  new  key. 

Superintendents  are  usually  chosen  from  among  army  pensioners. 
They  are  punctual  and  exacting,  as  a  rule,  in  their  regulations,  and  are 
good  disciplinarians. 

In  the  Brandon  street  buildings  58  heads  of  families  live  within  half 
a  mile  Irorn  their  work,  62  from  one-half  to  one  mile,  56  from  1  to  2 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  245 

miles,  and  14  from  2  to  3  miles.  The  cost  of  the  round  trip  where 
transportation  is  utilized  is  2d.  (4  cents). 

Separate  baths,  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water,  have  been  provided 
for  women  and  men.  Hot  water  for  tea  and  washing  is  served  from 
7  to  8  a.  m.,  12  m.  to  1  p.  m.,  and  5  to  G  p.  m.  This  is  heated  in  special 
boilers  near  the  boiler  room,  but  tenants  have  to  go  downstairs  for  it. 

Day  nurseries  have  been  opened,  and  a  small  fee  has  been  charged 
for  their  use.  The  whole  of  this  sum,  however,  has  been  spent  on  food 
for  the  children.  The  clubrooms  are  supplied  with  papers,  books, 
games,  etc.  They  are  well  attended,  and  the  Saturday  night  concerts 
given  by  the  tenants  continue  to  be  popular.  As  regards  average 
attendance,  it  may  be  said  that  this  has  notably  increased.  In  the 
view  of  the  administrators  of  the  trust,  the  initiatory  step  towards 
acquiring  this  taste  was  the  compulsory  fee  already  referred  to. 

All  the  buildings  are  not  erected  on  the  same  model.  The  prevailing 
type  is  that  exemplified  in  the  Brandon  street  building,  described  in 
the  previous  pages.  Another  type  is  exemplified  in  the  erection  of 
separate  pavilions  somewhat  in  the  manner  outlined  below: 


Better  ventilation  is  a  merit  claimed  for  the  latter  plan.  In  all  the 
buildings  the  general  disposition  of  the  interior  arrangements  is 
practically  the  same.  The  stairways  are  lighted  from  above.  On 
every  landing  are  placed  sinks,  laundries,  and  water-closets,  while 
from  each  landing  four  to  five  families  find  entrance  to  their  individual 
dwellings. 


2 46  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  Guinness  trust,  under  the  wise  administration  which  has  charac¬ 
terized  it  thus  far,  is  likely  to  point  out  the  way  to  a  satisfactory  solu¬ 
tion  of  the  housing  question,  so  far  as  philanthropy  may  be  made  to 
operate  in  the  interests  of  a  class  which  has  hitherto  rarely  been  catered 
to — those  who  have  casual  employment  and  small  earnings, 

MUNICIPAL  MODEL  BUILDINGS,  LIVERPOOL. 

This  property  is  owned  and  administered  by  the  municipality  of  Liver¬ 
pool,  and  given  up  to  the  housing  of  working  people.  The  site  for  these 
buildings  was  purchased  some  years  ago  by  the  corporation  under  the 
artisans’  and  laborers’  dwellings  act  of  1875.  The  land  was  covered 
chiefly  by  low-class,  unhealthy  dwellings,  most  of  them  known  as 
“ court  dwellings.”  It  was  a  thoroughly  crowded,  confined  neighbor¬ 
hood,  thickly  populated  by  laborers  and  others.  Upon  the  site  also 
were  buildings  used  as  stables,  tanneries,  etc.,  and  a  considerable  num¬ 
ber  for  other  business  purposes.  For  all  these  compensation  was 
awarded  when  the  compulsory  purchase  took  place.  The  entire  site 
comprised  22,487  square  yards,  of  which  3,717  square  yards  were  occu¬ 
pied  by  public  streets.  The  land  thus  acquired  cost  on  an  average 
about  £3  ($14.60)  per  square  yard.  The  population  displaced  was  1,310, 
all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of  about  200,  were  working  people. 
The  number  of  people  living  in  the  area  under  the  worst  sanitary  con¬ 
ditions  was  at  the  rate  of  282  per  acre.  The  land  was  cleared  and 
filled  to  a  proper  level  and  laid  out  for  the  erection  of  dwellings.  The 
corporation  itself  did  not  care  to  undertake  the  work,  and  offered 
the  land  at  auction  subject  to  conditions  as  to  the  class  of  buildings  to 
be  erected  upon  it,  as  well  as  the  rates  of  rent  for  the  same.  The  prop¬ 
erty  was  not  sold,  no  one  caring  to  undertake  the  work.  The  corpora¬ 
tion  finally  decided  to  proceed  with  the  erection  of  dwellings.  Plans 
were  prepared  by  Mr.  Clement  Dunseombe,  then  city  engineer  of  Liver¬ 
pool,  for  what  are  known  as  the  “Victoria  Square  artisans’  dwellings.” 
Sketches  of  these  are  shown,  as  well  as  a  ground  plan  of  the  site, 
including  the  adjacent  property  which  was  expropriated  at  the  same 
time  (plans  Nos.  31  A,  31  B,  and  31  C). 

The  lot  upon  which  the  buildings  have  been  constructed  is  in  the 
shape  of  a  quadrangle,  fronting  on  four  streets,  namely,  321  feet  on 
McKee  street,  285  feet  on  Lawrence  street,  180  feet  on  Cazneau  street, 
and  390  feet  on  Juvenal  street. 

The  total  area  of  the  lot  is  82,755  square  feet.  Of  this  35,316  square 
feet,  or  less  than  43  per  cent,  have  been  built  upon.  Five  blocks  of 
buildings  are  erected  around  the  outside  of  the  lot,  leaving  an  open 
space  in  the  form  of  a  courtyard  in  the  center,  with  five  passages 
leading  to  it.  The  court  is  paved  with  Portland  cement  concrete,  and 
given  up  entirely  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  No  part  of  it  is  cov¬ 
ered,  but  it  serves  very  largely  as  a  playground  for  children. 


VICTORIA  SQUARE  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND— STREET  VIEW. 

Plan  No.  31  a, 


VICTORIA  SQUARE  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND— QUADRANGLE  VIEW. 

Plan  No.  31  b. 


VICTORIA  SOUARE  ARTISANS-  DWELLINGS  AND  JUVENAL  BUILD, NGS,  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND-PLAN  OF  SITE 

Plan  No.  31  c. 


' 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  24? 

The  buildings  are  of  five  stories,  and  are  66  feet  high.  They  are 
constructed  of  brick.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  is  18  inches 
to  the  fourth  floor,  and  then  from  14  inches  to  9  inches  at  the  top. 
The  roofing  is  of  Welsh  slate,  and  the  staircases  are  of  stone  and  con¬ 
crete.  Party  walls  divide  the  five  blocks  into  thirteen  sections,  so  that 
fire  can  not  spread  from  one  to  the  other.  No  wood  is  used  in  the  hall¬ 
ways  or  staircases.  In  the  rooms  the  floors  are  of  wood,  but  they  are 
specially  constructed  so  as  to  prevent  the  spread  of  fire.  There  are  no 
fire  escapes.  There  is  neither  cellar  nor  basement  to  the  buildings. 
A  space  of  4  feet  is  left  between  the  ground  floor  and  the  ground  level, 
with  openings  in  front  and  rear  for  ventilation.  The  entire  area  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  buildings  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  Portland  cement  con¬ 
crete  averaging  9  inches  in  thickness.  The  footpaths  and  roadways 
inside  and  the  streets  outside  have  6-inch  foundations  of  Portland 
cement  concrete  so  as  to  make  the  site  practically  impervious  to  mois¬ 
ture  and  to  prevent  dampness. 

There  are  thirteen  staircases.  The  landings  of  the  stairs  are  open 
to  the  quadrangle  front  for  their  entire  height,  and  project  from  the 
main  building,  forming  a  balcony  protected  by  a  wrought  iron  railing. 
The  stairs  and  corridors  are  lighted  by  these  openings  and  by  the  win¬ 
dows  of  the  sculleries,  and  through  ventilation  from  front  to  back  of 
each  dwelling  is  thus  afforded.  The  floors  of  laundries,  sculleries,  cor¬ 
ridors,  and  water-closets  are  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  and  the 
stairs  and  landings  are  of  stone.  There  is  a  granolithic  washable  dado, 
finished  in  terra  cotta  color,  for  a  height  of  4  feet  round  the  staircases 
and  corridors,  above  which  the  walls  are  plastered  and  colored  in  wash¬ 
able  material  of  a  suitable  tint.  The  walls  of  laundries  and  water- 
closets  are  fair-pointed  and  lime-whitened.  The  corridors  leading  to  the 
dwellings  are  35  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  9  feet  in  height.  Extensions 
(lobbies)  on  both  sides  of  the  laundries  leading  to  the  sculleries  and 
water-closets  are  each  12  feet  long  and  5  feet  wide.  The  landings  are 
8  feet  wide  and  the  steps  3£  feet  wide.  Walls  extend  on  both  sides  of 
each  staircase,  there  being  no  banister.  But  one  door  in  each  lodging- 
opens  directly  upon  the  hallway.  No  special  provisions  exist  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants  on  stairways  and  land¬ 
ings  or  in  the  corridors.  Independence  and  isolation  of  the  individual 
family  are  thought  to  be  sufficiently  provided  for  in  the  small  number  of 
persons  who  find  entrance  to  their  dwellings  from  each  landing.  Every 
room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open 
air.  Adequate  provision  has  been  made  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air 
through  ventilators  in  the  external  walls  and  in  the  corridors,  and  for  the 
passing  out  of  foul  air  through  flues  in  chimney  breasts  fitted  with  mica 
flap  ventilators.  At  the  back  of  the  fire  grate  a  hot  air  chamber  has 
been  constructed,  which  is  supplied  with  cold,  fresh  air  through  per¬ 
forated  terra  cotta  bricks  fixed  in  the  external  walls,  and  thence 
through  a  cavity  formed  in.  walls  leading  to  the  air  chamber.  The  air 


248  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

wlien  warmed  passes  through  pipes  leading  to  the  living  rooms  and 
bedrooms,  the  supply  being  regulated  by  cast  iron  hit-and-miss  venti¬ 
lators  placed  in  the  walls  of  these  rooms.  Ventilation  of  the  quad¬ 
rangle  is  assured  by  the  five  passages  which  separate  the  buildings 
into  as  many  distinct  blocks  and  allow  the  free  passage  of  air  through 
the  court  from  all  directions. 

Two  water-closets  are  placed  on  each  floor,  for  the  joint  use  of  four 
tenements.  They  are  inside  the  building,  but  entirely  disconnected 
from  the  dwellings.  The  water-closets  are  fitted  with  glazed  bowls  of  the 
best  construction.  They  have  adequate  provisions  for  flushing,  and  are 
provided  with  cisterns  for  preventing  waste  of  water.  They  are  entered 
from  the  lobbies  and  are  adjacent  to  the  sculleries.  They  project 
slightly  beyond  the  main  building  line.  They  have  constant  through 
ventilation  and  windows  are  pivot  hung. 

The  sewers  in  the  streets  fronting  the  buildings  are  3  feet  by  1  foot 
10  inches  in  size  and  are  constructed  of  brick.  They  are  thoroughly 
ventilated  at  frequent  intervals  by  means  of  open  grates.  Into  them 
run  all  the  waste  and  soil  pipes  from  the  buildings,  with  the  exception 
of  the  block  fronting  on  Cazneau  street.  The  drains  in  the  quadrangle 
are  made  of  glazed  earthenware  socket  pipes  6  inches,  9  inches,  and  12 
inches  in  diameter,  respectively,  and  calked  and  jointed  with  Portland 
cement.  One  of  these  takes  the  waste  and  soil  pipes  from  the  closets  of 
the  Cazneau  street  block  above  referred  to  and  eventually  discharges 
into  the  main  sewer.  The  others  receive  only  the  water  from  the  roofs 
and  surface  water  from  the  quadrangle.  The  former  drain  is  ventilated 
by  a  special  6-inch  ventilating  shaft  fixed  to  the  building  and  discharg¬ 
ing  well  above  the  roof  line,  and  is  furnished  at  its  highest  point  with 
an  automatic  flushing  tank  of  300  gallons  capacity,  constructed  of  brick. 
The  remaining  drains  in  the  quadrangle  are  also  ventilated.  All  of  the 
waste  pipes  from  the  buildings  are  disconnected  from  the  drains,  and 
discharge  into  the  ventilated  4  by  4  inch  cast  iron  pipes  attached  to  the 
buildings.  They  are  calked  and  jointed  in  red  lead.  These  pipes  again 
discharge  over  the  water  line  of  a  trapped  gully  at  the  foot  of  same 
fixed  in  the  footpath  within  the  building  line  and  covered  with  a  gra¬ 
ting.  The  closets  discharge  into  an  external  G-inch  socketed  and  lead 
jointed  cast  iron  soil  pipe,  with  special  Y  junction  cast  on  of  sufficient 
length  to  reach  inside  the  wall  of  the  building  and  receive  the  outlet 
from  the  closet,  the  joint  being  made  within  the  wal}  line.  These  soil 
pipes  continue  above  the  roof  line  their  full  diameter  and  terminate  with 
a  cowl  on  top;  they  are  supplied  with  fresh  air  inlets.  Both  the  siphon 
and  improved  flush-out  closet  are  of  Bristol  glazed  ware,  the  former 
having  an  air-tight  inspection  cover.  The  waste  pipes  from  the  scul¬ 
leries,  sinks,  wash  troughs,  etc.,  are  made  entirely  of  Bristol  glazed 
pipe  If  inches  in  diameter,  thus  dispensing  with  lead  jApes.  They  are 
fitted  underneath  with  a  siphon  of  the  same  material,  furnished  with 
an  air-tight  inspection  inlet  with  the  requisite  piping,  and  they  dis- 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


249 


charge  outside  the  building.  The  public  drains  are  flushed  at  frequent 
intervals,  and  all  private  drains  within  the  city  are  flushed  twice 
annually,  and  oftener  on  payment  of  a  small  fee  by  the  property  owners. 

Tenants  are  not  restricted  in  the  quantity  of  water  which  they  may 
use  daily.  A  constant  service  supply  is  laid  to  every  floor  of  the  build¬ 
ings.  The  taps  in  the  corridors  are  provided  with  half  coupling  on  the 
nose  for  hose  pipe,  rendering  them  capable  of  being  used  in  case  of  fire 
on  any  floor.  Fire  hydrants  are  also  arranged  within  the  quadrangle, 
and  two  double  drinking  fountains  are  provided.  All  water  for  domestic 
use  is  drawn  directly  from  the  mains.  A  500  gallon  slate  storage  cis¬ 
tern,  placed  in  the  roof  of  each  building,  supplies  the  6-gallon  flush 
regulating  cisterns  fixed  over  each  water-closet.  Should  the  regular 
supply  be  cut  off  for  repairs,  taps  from  cisterns  are  provided  on  the 
ground  floor,  which  can  be  utilized  in  case  of  need. 

There  is  no  heating  of  hallways  or  corridors.  Lighting  is  done  by 
gas  and  is  included  in  the  price  of  rent.  In  Liverpool  the  gas  plant  is 
the  property  of  the  city.  Gas  is  brought  to  the  buildings  through  an 
independent  3-inch  cast-iron  main  leading  around  the  quadrangle.  The 
outlet  from  the  street  main  leads  into  the  meter  house  in  the  basement 
of  the  superintendent’s  building,  in  which  are  fixed  two  200-light  meters 
discharging  into  the  3-inch  main.  The  gas  is  under  the  control  of  the 
superintendent  in  his  general  office.  Pressure  gauges  are  fixed  in  his 
office  to  facilitate  the  adjustment  of  supply,  and  a  f-incli  by-pass  is 
fixed  on  the  valve  to  prevent  the  total  extinction  of  the  lights. 
Branches  to  each  of  the  thirteen  blocks  are  laid  from  the  main  with  a 
stop  cock  fixed  on  same  on  the  outside  of  the  building,  inclosed  in  a 
suitable  iron  box. 

The  corridors  and  sculleries  are  provided  with  lanterns  of  proper 
design,  fixed  to  the  walls,  and  in  each  of  the  living  rooms  and  laundries 
are  ornamental  iron  pendants  with  ball  joints.  Over  the  entrance  of 
the  door  of  each  dwelling  a  bracket  lamp  of  ornamental  design  has  been 
placed;  there  are  also  lamps  at  the  main  entrance,  on  Cazneau  street. 

Every  precaution  is  taken  to  prevent  the  waste  of  gas  and  to  insure 
its  economical  use.  To  each  of  the  burners  in  the  corridors,  sculleries, 
and  laundries  a  special  cock  is  fixed,  capable  only  of  being  opened  and 
shut  by  a  key  in  the  possession  of  the  superintendent;  also  separate 
main  cocks  to  the  supply  pipes  leading  to  each  of  the  tenements  and 
fixed  in  the  corridors.  These  are  also  under  the  control  of  the  superin¬ 
tendent.  Governors  are  fixed  to  the  lights,  limiting  the  consumption 
to  3  cubic  feet  per  hour  of  20-candlepower  gas,  with  the  exception  of  the 
outside  lamps,  which  are  limited  to  4  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Washing  and  drying  clothes  is  done  in  laundries  and  not  in  the 
lodgings.  Each  living  room  has  a  specially  designed  cast  iron  com¬ 
bination  mantel  and  overmantel,  and  a  cooking  range  fitted  with  oven, 
plate  rack, and  other  useful  accessories.  The  fire  bars  and  fall-down 
bars  of  the  lire  grate  and  draw-out  feet  are  all  of  wrought  iron.  Most 


250  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

of  the  bedrooms  have  grates.  There  is  a  combination  dresser,  larder, 
coal  bunker,  and  closet  provided  in  every  living  room.  In  this  recep¬ 
tacle  there  are  attached  cup  rails,  small  and  large  cupboards,  draw¬ 
ers,  etc.,  and  the  coal  bunker  has  sliding  doors  in  living  rooms  and 
a  small  door  in  the  corridor  through  which  coal  may  be  delivered. 
Hat  and  coat  rails  are  fixed  in  all  the  rooms,  and  in  the  bedrooms 
shelving  and  hanging  closets  are  provided.  The  larder  is  fitted  with 
shelves,  meat  hooks,  and  hangers,  and  is  ventilated  by  openings 
into  the  corridor  filled  in  with  terra  cotta  ventilators,  covered  on  the 
inside  with  perforated  zinc.  Clothespresses  have  been  provided  in 
nearly  all  the  rooms.  Venetian  blinds  are  furnished  for  all  windows. 
There  is  an  iron  balcony  facing  the  court  on  every  floor  in  each  house. 
The  sashes  of  all  the  windows  throughout  open  for  their  entire  area. 
They  are  divided  into  three  parts,  the  lower  sash  being  double  hung 
and  the  upper  sash  pivot  hung.  The  lower  portion  of  each  window  is 
divided  into  small  squares  and  is  glazed  with  cathedral  tinted  glass, 
giving  a  cheerful  appearance  and  at  the  same  time  acting  as  a  shade. 

On  either  side  of  the  laundry  on  every  floor  leading  immediately  from 
the  corridor  there  is  a  double  sink  of  Bristol  glazed  ware,  provided 
with  hard  wood  drainers,  with  water  supply  to  each.  There  is  one 
sink  for  the  use  of  each  family.  An  additional  water  tap  is  placed  in 
the  corridors  on  every  floor  near  the  sculleries. 

The  interior  of  the  dwellings  is  made  as  attractive  and  cheerful  as 
possible.  The  walls  of  all  the  rooms  are  plastered  and  finished  with 
hygienically  prepared  calcimine.  Around  the  living  room  there  is  a 
dado  of  dark  tint  surmounted  by  a  stenciled  border,  above  which  the 
walls  are  finished  in  a  lighter  color.  All  of  the  door  furniture  and 
fittings  and  general  ironwork  are  especially  designed  and  made  of  malle¬ 
able  iron,  the  cost  of  these  being  less  than  the  commoner  furniture 
generally  used.  The  outer  door  of  each  tenement  is  furnished  with  a 
malleable  iron  knocker  representing  “The  Liver”  (which  forms  part  of 
the  corporation  crest),  the  door  handle  forming  a  knocker  capable  of 
being  used  by  children,  and  an  enameled  iron  number. 

The  external  construction  of  the  buildings  presents  a  very  tasteful 
appearance.  The  material  used  in  the  construction  is  Liverpool  gray 
common  brick,  with  red  pressed  brick  arches  and  window  jambs, 
molded  labels  over  windows,  and  panels  under  them,  cornices  and 
bands  and  red  pressed  brick  used  sparingly  in  a  few  other  places. 
Red  terra  cotta  has  been  employed  in  the  main  entrance,  doorways, 
and  dormers.  Wrought  iron  balconies  are  introduced  in  connection 
with  the  main  staircase  on  each  dwelling  on  the  quadrangle  side.  All 
windows  have  Yorkshire  stone  sills  projecting  12  inches  from  the  face  of 
the  walls  for  potted  plants  or  window  boxes,  each  being  fitted  with  neat 
wrought  iron  guard  rails.  The  wall  surface  has  been  broken  by  slight 
projections  surmounted  by  dormers,  making  the  general  appearance  of 
the  buildings,  viewed  from  any  position,  most  pleasing  to  the  eye.  The 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


251 


extra  cost  incurred  by  this  mode  of  treating  tlie  elevations,  by  the 
introduction  of  terra  cotta,  etc.,  over  elevations  of  the  plainest  char¬ 
acter  is  inappreciable  in  so  extensive  a  block,  while  the  advantage  in 
departing  from  the  general  conventional  treatment  of  this  class  of 
dwellings  is  apparent. 

The  Victoria  Square  artisans’  dwellings  contain  21  one-room,  104 
two-room,  and  80  three-room  tenements.  The  superintendent  has  a 
four-room  apartment  for  his  own  use,  and  there  are  12  shops.  The 
one-room  tenements  are  12  feet  by  12  feet.  In  the  two-room  tenements 
the  living  room  is  13  feet  by  12  feet  4  inches,  and  the  bedroom  15  feet  3 
inches  by  9  feet  7  inches.  In  the  three-room  tenements  the  living  room 
is  13  feet  by  12  feet  4  inches,  and  one  bedroom  15  feet  3  inches  by  9 
feet  7  inches,  while  the  other  bedroom  is  13  feet  by  8  feet  6  inches. 
The  height  of  ceilings  is  9  feet  throughout.  These  measurements  are 
exclusive  of  sculleries,  laundries,  and  water-closets.  The  bedrooms  are 
capable  of  being  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  movable  screen  with  sepa¬ 
rate  entrances  to  each  half.  The  object  is  to  separate  the  sexes  when 
the  children  of  the  family  have  grown  to  manhood  or  womanhood.  The 
screens,  however,  are  not  very  often  used.  The  air  space  of  one-room 
tenements  is  1,290  cubic  feet;  of  two-room  tenements,  2,757  cubic  feet; 
of  three-room  tenements,  3,7514  cubic  feet. 

Two  hundred  and  sixty-six  families  occupied  these  buildings  during 
the  last  fiscal  year.  The  population  housed  was  980.  Taking,  then, 
the  total  measurements  of  the  inside  of  dwellings  alone,  each  inhabitant 
was  allowed,  on  the  average,  813  cubic  feet. 

The  death  rate  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Victoria  Square  arti¬ 
sans’  dwellings  and  the  Juvenal  buildings,  which  are  situated  just 
across  the  street  and  belong,  likewise,  to  the  corporation,  averaged 
during  the  last  three  fiscal  years  17.5  per  1,000.  The  average  death  rate 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  ward  in  which  these  buildings  are  situated 
was  32  per  1,000,  while  that  of  the  whole  city  was  20  per  1,000.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  death  rate  in  these  model  tenements  was  over  45  per 
cent  less  than  that  of  the  ward  in  which  they  are  situated.  Records  of 
births  and  criminal  convictions  were  not  obtainable. 

The  Victoria  Square  buildings  were  opened  for  habitation  December 
7, 1885.  The  estimated  original  cost  of  the  lot  was  £10,125  ($49,273.31), 
and  of  the  buildings  £58,000  ($282,257).  The  total  sum  received  for 
rentals  during  the  last  fiscal  year  (1893)  was  £2,825  ($13,747.80).  The 
rental  of  one-room  tenements  is  2s.  (49  cents)  per  week,  including  gas¬ 
lighting,  water,  and  all  conveniences.  Two-room  tenements  in  the  first 
three  stories  rent  for  4s.  3d.  ($1.03)  per  week,  and  for  3s.  Gd.  (85  cents) 
per  week  on  the  two  upper  floors.  Three-room  tenements  similarly 
situated  rent  for  5s.  6d.  and  5s.  ($1.34  and  $1.22)  per  week,  respec¬ 
tively.  A  shop  rents  for  £25  ($121.06)  per  annum. 

The  corporation  of  Liverpool  has  more  recently  erected  other  labor¬ 
ers’  dwellings.  These  are  known  as  the  Juvenal  buildings,  and  com* 


252  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

prise  four  large  blocks  erected  on  land  adjoining  Victoria  Square.  The 
plot  is  irregular  in  shape.  Its  contour  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
buildings  have  been  placed  on  it  are  represented  in  the  ground  plan 
previously  shown  (plan  No.  31  C). 

The  total  area  is  22,842  square  feet;  9,881f  square  feet,  or  a  little 
over  43  per  cent,  have  been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  in  the  form 
of  a  courtyard  and  private  ways.  It  is  paved  with  asphalt,  and  surren¬ 
dered  entirely  to  the  free  use  of  occupants. 

The  four  buildings  erected  upon  this  lot  are  known,  respectively,  as 
the  Juvenal,  the  Back  Juvenal,  the  Grosvenor,  and  the  Cazneau.  All 
are  four  stories  high  except  the  Back  Juvenal  building,  which  has 
three  stories.  The  first  three  are  51  feet  and  the  last  41  feet  high. 
Brick  has  been  used  as  the  material  of  construction.  The  thickness  of 
the  exterior  walls  is  14  inches  at  the  bottom  and  9  inches  at  the  top. 
The  roof  is  made  of  asphalt  and  is  used  for  drying  clothes.  The  laun¬ 
dries  are  on  the  roof,  and  children  are  permitted  to  play  outside  while 
their  mothers  are  occupied  with  washing  within.  A  5-foot  brick  wall 
surrounds  the  roof  to  prevent  the  children  falling  off. 

In  the  Juvenal  buildings,  which  are  the  largest  of  this  group,  the 
hallways  are  8  feet  wide  and  9  feet  3  inches  high.  The  staircases  are 
each  3  feet  wide.  They  are  in  the  interior.  The  walls  of  hallways  and 
staircases  are  covered  with  Portland  cement  to  a  height  of  4  feet  6 
inches,  and  above  that  they  are  plastered.  The  steps  and  halfway 
landings  are  of  stone,  and  the  main  landings  or  hallway  floors  are  of 
cement.  Two  tenements  open  on  each  staircase.  At  each  halfway 
landing  a  door  opens  to  an  iron  balcony,  by  which  the  water-closet  and 
dust  shoots  are  reached.  A  high  iron  railing  surrounds  the  balcony. 
Along  one  side  of  the  stairway  an  iron  banister  has  been  placed.  In 
the  Cazneau,  Grosvenor,  and  Back  Juvenal  buildings  the  walls  of  the 
hallways  and  staircases  are  lined  with  brown  glazed  brick  to  a  height 
of  4  feet  6  inches,  and  above  that  with  white  glazed  brick.  The  steps, 
landings,  and  halfway  landings  are  of  concrete.  The  hallways  or 
landings  are  8  feet  8  inches  and  9  feet  3  inches  high.  The  staircases 
are  3  feet  10  inches  wide.  Both  sides  of  each  staircase  are  walled,  there 
being  no  banisters  as  in  the  case  of  the  Juvenal  building.  As  a  rule, 
four  tenements  open  to  each  staircase.  There  is  no  inflammable  material 
used  anywhere  on  the  staircases  or  in  the  hallways,  except  the  wood  of 
which  the  doors  and  door  frames  are  constructed.  V 

In  one  ease,  that  of  the  Back  Juvenal  building,  a  narrow  corridor 
extends  along  the  middle  of  the  building  connecting  single-room  tene¬ 
ments  with  the  staircase.  This  passage  is  dark  and  takes  up  space 
which  might  have  been  utilized  for  increasing  the  size  of  the  rooms. 
Otherwise  there  seems  to  be  no  waste  space  anywhere  in  the  building. 
All  rooms  opening  to  one  staircase  are  separated  from  all  others  by 
fire  walls,  so  that  fire  can  not  spread  over  the  whole  of  any  one  block. 
No  fire  escapes  have  been  attached  to  the  buildings.  There  are  no 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


253 


cel-ars  or  basements,  but  there  is  a  space  of  18  inches  between  the 
ground  floor  and  the  ground  level.  The  latter  is  paved  with  asphalt 
in  order  to  prevent  dampness.  Only  one  door  in  each  tenement  opens 
directly  upon  the  stairway  or  hallway.  There  are  no  special  arrange¬ 
ments  designed  to  prevent  promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants  in  the 
hallways  or  corridors  or  for  securing  further  independence  and  isolation 
of  individual  families.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by 
doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  Fresh  air  is  admitted  through 
ventilators  in  the  external  walls  and  corridors,  and  foul  air  escapes 
through  openings  in  chimney  breasts  fitted  with  mica  flap  ventilators. 
The  buildings  are  so  arranged  and  separated  from  each  other  by  courts 
and  open  passages  that  there  is  free  circulation  of  air  on  all  sides. 
Generally  two  families  use  the  same  water-closet.  In  some  cases,  where 
there  are  single-room  tenements,  three  families  use  one.  The  water- 
closets,  although  in  the  buildiug,  are  reached  from  the  outside  by  means 
of  balconies.  They  are  thoroughly  disconnected  from  the  living  rooms. 
The  Bristol  glazed  flush-out  closets  of  the  best  construction,  with  waste 
water  preventing  cisterns,  are  in  use.  Practically  the  same  disposi¬ 
tions  have  been  made  in  relation  to  plumbing  and  sewerage  as  have 
already  been  described  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  Victoria  Square 
dwellings.  The  water  supply  per  lodging  is  unlimited. 

Gas  is  furnished  in  all  the  living  rooms.  Lighting  is  included  in  the 
price  of  rent  in  the  Juvenal  as  in  the  Victoria  Square  buildings.  Its 
estimated  cost  is  6d.  (12  cents)  per  week.  In  the  Oazneau,  Back  Juve¬ 
nal,  and  Grosvenor  buildings  automatic  gas  meters  are  used,  by  which 
the  dropping  of  a  penny  in  a  slot  turns  on  a  certain  quantity  of  lighting 
material. 

The  interior  of  the  rooms  is  rather  plain,  the  walls  being  simply  whit¬ 
ened.  Some  attention  has  been  paid  to  exterior  decoration,  such  as 
the  use  of  red  pressed  brick  for  arches  and  window  jambs,  as  well  as 
cornices  and  other  slight  ornamentation.  These  buildings  do  not  by 
any  means  present  the  same  tasteful  appearance  as  the  Victoria  Square 
dwellings. 

One  hundred  and  one  families  inhabited  these  tenements  during  the 
year  for  which  returns  were  available.  The  total  number  of  persons 
was  350.  Beckoning  simply  the  interior  of  dwellings,  a  space  of  736 
cubic  feet  represents  the  average  accorded  each  individual. 

The  buildings  contain  45  one-room,  54  two-room,  and  2  three-room 
tenements.  The  living  rooms  in  one-room  tenements  vary  from  12  feet 
3  inches  by  9  feet  1  inch  to  15  feet  3  inches  by  14  feet.  In  two-room 
tenements  the  living  rooms  vary  from  12  feet  by  10  feet  9  inches  to  16 
feet  6  inches  by  12  feet  9  inches.  Bedrooms  vary  from  13  feet  9  inches 
by  12  feet  to  16  feet  3  inches  by  12  feet  9  inches.  In  three-room  tene¬ 
ments  the  living  rooms  are  14  feet  by  12  feet  3  inches,  the  bedrooms  14 
feet  by  11  feet  and  15  feet  1  inch  by  14  feet,  respectively.  The  height 
of  all  rooms  is  9  feet  4  inches. 


254  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lot  is  estimated  at  £3,045  ($14,1518.49)  and 
the  cost  of  the  buildings  at  £13,100  ($63,751.15).  The  total  sum 
received  for  rentals  during  the  fiscal  year  1893  was  £807  ($3,927.27). 
One-room  tenements  rent  for  2s.  9d.  (67  cents)  per  week  iu  the  first 
story,  2s.  6d.  (61  cents)  in  the  second,  2s.  3d.  to  2s.  6d.  (55  to  61  cents) 
in  the  third,  and  2s.  to  2s.  6d.  (49  to  61  cents)  in  the  fourth.  The  price 
of  two-room  tenements  varies  from  4s.  to  5s.  3d.  (97  cents  to  $1.28)  on 
the  first  and  second  floors,  and  from  3s.  9d.  to  4s.  9d.  (91  cents  to  $1.16) 
on  the  third  floor.  Three-room  tenements  rent  for  5s.  6d.  ($1.34)  per 
week.  One  three-room  tenement  and  store  rent  for  £30  ($146)  per 
annum.  These  rentals  include  gas  and  water. 

The  first  model  tenements,  known  as  the  u  Saint  Martin’s  cottages,” 
built  by  the  corporation  of  Liverpool  were  opened  for  habitation  m  1869. 

The  money  necessary  for  purchasing  the  land  and  building  the  Vic¬ 
toria  Square  artisans’  dwellings  and  the  Juvenal  laborers’  dwellings 
was  obtained  by  taxation  and  loan,  as  provided  under  the  artisans’  and 
laborers’  dwellings  act  of  1875.  USTo  reserve  has  been  set  aside.  The 
average  annual  per  cent  of  net  profits  on  operations  since  the  beginning 
has  been,  from  the  Saint  Martin’s  cottages,  3£  per  cent;  the  Juvenal 
buildings,  4  per  cent;  and  the  Victoria  Square  buildings,  2£  per  cent. 
The  total  sum  received  for  rent  from  all  the  buildings  during  the  last 
fiscal  year  (1893)  was  £4,762  ($23,174.27).  The  per  cent  of  unoccupied 
tenements  was  2  per  cent  in  Victoria  Square,  1  per  cent  in  the  Juvenal 
dwellings,  and  7  per  cent  in  Saint  Martin’s  cottages.  Rents  are  paid 
weekly,  and  are  collected  by  the  resident  superintendent.  One  week’s 
notice  is  required  from  tenants  of  intention  to  move.  One  to  four 
weeks’  arrearages  are  allowed,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
case.  The  total  sum  lost  during  the  fiscal  year  at  the  Victoria  and 
Juvenal  blocks  from  arrearages  was  £171  ($832.17).  This  includes 
arrearages  carried  forward.  These  are  rarely  lost;  in  fact  the  actual 
experience  of  Victoria  Square  and  Juvenal  dwellings  from  the  year 
1885  to  the  end  of  1893  for  the  cottages  alone  was  £27,416  ($133,419.96) 
collected,  while  the  bad  debts  actually  irrecoverable  by  the  corporation 
amounted  to  only  £15S  ($768.91)  during  the  same  period.  Rentals  have 
neither  advanced  nor  declined  since  the  property  was  opened  for  habi¬ 
tation,  and  the  charges  are  about  the  same  as  those  which  obtain  in  the 
neighborhood. 

A  census  showing  occupations  and  earnings  of  heads  of  families 
reveals  the  following  facts: 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  THE  MUNICIPAL 

MODEL  BUILDINGS,  LIVERPOOL. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Artisans . . . . . . . . . . 

106 

$6.81 
4. 63 

U n skilled  laborers . . . . 

225 

Not  specified  (widows  and  spinsters) . . 

40 

2.92 

CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


255 


Probably  15  per  cent  represents  the  proportion  of  earnings  of  beads 
of  families  paid  as  rent  in  these  dwellings.  The  artisans  are  mainly 
boiler  makers,  joiners,  painters,  plumbers,  plasterers,  and  fitters.  The 
unskilled  laborers  comprise  carters,  draymen,  lamplighters,  sugar  refin¬ 
ery  and  warehouse  employees,  dock  laborers,  and  porters.  About  200 
heads  of  families  occupying  these  buildings  live  less  than  half  a  mile 
from  their  places  of  work.  One  hundred  and  seventy  work  from  one- 
half  to  one  mile  distant,  and  pay  2d.  (4  cents)  for  a  round  trip  if  they 
take  the  street  car.  Usually  they  walk. 

There  are  no  annexes  in  the  form  of  bread  ovens,  libraries,  reading 
rooms,  parlors,  or  halls  for  social  or  musical  meetings.  The  model 
buildings  are  supervised  by  one  resident  superintendent  for  the  Saint 
Martin’s  cottages  and  one  for  the  Victoria  and  Juvenal  buildings. 
These  transact  all  minor  business  between  the  corporation  and  the  ten¬ 
ants,  collect  rents,  recommend  repairs,  etc.  The  contract  of  tenancy 
is  signed  by  the  tenant  and  the  city  treasurer.  The  latter  has  charge 
of  all  the  financial  business  relating  to  the  buildings,  keeps  account 
of  rents  received,  expenses  paid,  etc.  The  city  surveyor  looks  after 
repairs  and  the  general  condition  of  the  buildings,  the  grounds,  etc. 
The  superintendent  reports  either  to  the  city  surveyor  or  city  treasurer, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject  dealt  with.  The  buildings  were 
not  constructed  by  contractors.  It  is  stated  that  they  can  be  built  more 
cheaply  when  the  city  employs  the  workmen,  purchases  the  material, 
and  supervises  construction  with  its  own  clerk  of  works. 

One-room  tenements  are  necessary  for  single  women — widows  and 
spinsters — who  cannot  afford  to  pay  more  than  2s.  (49  cents)  per  week. 
There  is  no  need  of  larger  tenements  than  those  of  three  rooms,  because 
if  people  can  afford  to  occupy  four  or  more  rooms  they  belong  to  the 
class  above  that  for  which  the  municipal  authorities  wish  to  provide 
accommodation. 

Tenants,  as  a  rule,  do  not  find  fault  with  the  regulations.  Those  who 
are  worthy  and  desirable  appreciate  cleanliness  and  order,  and  are 
entitled  to  have  it.  They  know  that  the  regulations  are  made  for  their 
benefit.  Whenever  persons  apply  for  rooms,  before  they  obtain  them 
they  are  visited  by  the  superintendent,  who  notes  whether  they  are 
desirable  or  not,  estimates  the  habits  and  characteristics  of  the  family, 
and  acts  accordingly.  No  inquiry  is  made,  however,  as  to  their  earn¬ 
ings.  Whenever  rooms  are  vacant  the  fact  is  announced  on  a  small 
blackboard  which  is  placed  at  the  main  entrance,  liooms  are  painted 
and  the  walls  cleaned  or  whitened  once  in  two  years,  as  a  rule.  When 
tenements  are  vacated  they  may  be  put  in  order  at  more  frequent  inter¬ 
vals,  at  the  discretion  of  the  superintendent. 

In  private  buildings  in  the  neighborhood  four  rooms  are  sometimes 
rented  at  Cs.  ($1.46)  per  week,  and  the  owners  sometimes  make  10  per 
cent  on  the  money  invested.  These  buildings  are  constructed  of  the 
cheapest  material.  Still,  people  often  prefer  four  rooms  of  this  kind 
to  the  three-room  tenements  in  the  Victoria  Square  buildings  at  5s.  6d. 


256  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


($1.34)  per  week,  including  gas.  Therefore  there  is  more  difficulty  in 
renting  these  three-room  tenements  than  the  others. 

The  pressed  brick  used  in  the  construction  of  the  buildings  cost  40s. 
($9.73)  per  1,000,  the  common  brick  21s.  ($5.11),  and  the  glazed  brick 
from  80s.  to  100s.  ($19.47  to  $24.33)  per  1,000.  These  buildings  have 
cost  the  taxpayers  1  half-penny  (1  cent)  in  the  pound  ($4.87). 

Mr.  Turtou,  the  deputy  corporation  surveyor,  has  very  clear  views  as 
to  what  constitutes  model  tenements,  and  he  is  quite  sure  that  they 
can  be  constructed  so  as  to  pay  4  per  cent  net  on  capital  invested.  A 
sketch  of  his  proposed  plan  (plan  No.  32)  is  shown. 

He  starts  out  with  the  proposition  that  each  tenement  should  be 
self-contained,  and  with  water  inside.  The  relative  disposition  of  the 
staircase  and  tenements  should  not  necessitate  internal  hallways.  The 
doors  of  all  tenements  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  staircase, 
for  in  this  way  space  would  be  economized  to  the  utmost.  Each  class 
of  tenements,  namely,  one,  two,  and  three  room  tenements,  should  be 
found  on  every  landing.  All  living  rooms  should  have  double  win¬ 
dows.  The  water-closets  and  dust  shoots  should  be  in  an  extension 
of  the  building  and  be  reached  from  the  outside  by  means  of  balconies 
on  each  halfway  landing.  Such  a  building  can  be  built  three  stories 
high,  with  glazed  brick  in  the  hallways  and  staircases,  at  4  per  cent 
profit  on  capital.  The  following  is  the  calculation: 

Allowing  520  squai'e  yards  for  each,  building,  about  one-third  of  the  space 
to  he  taken  up  with  the  building  and  the  rest  left  open,  at  15s.  ($3.6499) 


per  square  yard . $1,  897.  94 

Cost  of  building . .  6,  667. 11 

Total  cost  . .  8, 565.  05 


Income,  taken  at  the  very  lowest  rental — 

3  one-room  tenements,  at  2s.  ($0.4867)  per  week . . .  1.  46 

6  two-room  tenements,  at  3s.  3d.  ($0.7908)  per  week .  4.  74 

3  three-room  tenements,  at  4s.  6d.  ($1,095)  per  week .  3. 29 

Total  income  per  week .  9. 49 

Total  income  per  annum .  493.48 


Deducting  30  per  cent  ($148.04)  of  the  income  for  outgoings  per 
annum,  the  net  income  is  $345.44,  which  is  about  4  per  cent  on  the 
total  investment. 

The  corporation  of  Liverpool  purchases  insanitary  dwellings,  such 
as  back-to-back  dwellings  and  houses,  and  demolishes  them.  An  at¬ 
tempt  is  made  to  treat  with  tbe  proprietor  as  to  the  price  to  be  paid, 
and  if  this  fails  the  matter  is  decided  by  arbitration.  The  purchase 
price  is  fixed  at  the  amount  of  nine  years’  rental  after  deducting  50 
per  cent  from  the  gross  sum  for  taxes,  repairs,  etc.  The  vacant  land, 
after  the  buildings  are  demolished,  is  sold,  and  the  houses  afterwards 
built  thereon  are  subject  to  the  regulations  contained  in  the  by-laws. 
In  cases  of  this  kind  the  city  generally  buys  and  sells  the  freehold. 
The  building  by-laws  of  Liverpool  now  compel  speculative  builders  to 
construct  proper  sanitary  dwellings. 


PROPOSED  PLAN  FOR  MODEL  TENEMENTS,  LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  32. 


BLOCK  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  MANCHESTER  LABORERS’  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MANCHESTER,  ENGLAND. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


257 


MANCHESTER  LABORERS’  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MANCHESTER. 

In  consequence  of  some  reports  published  by  Dr.  Leigh,  late  medical 
officer  of  health,  in  1889,  describing  the  slums  of  the  cotton  metropo¬ 
lis,  a  great  deal  of  interest  was  aroused  in  sanitary  matters.  The 
successor  to  the  office,  Dr.  Tatham,  continued  to  present  further  facts, 
and  Mr.  Maycock,  a  well-known  architect,  visited  Liverpool  and  other 
places  in  order  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  practicability  and  financial 
soundness  of  model  schemes.  His  view  of  the  case  was  that  only 
under  exceptional  conditions  could  new  buildings  be  erected  in  Man¬ 
chester,  and  he  therefore  suggested  that  an  old  building,  if  such  could 
be  found,  should  be  remodeled  and  made  to  serve  the  purpose.  The 
Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  limited,  was  the  result. 
Some  unused  buildings  in  Ancoats,  known  as  the  Jersey  street  mills, 
were  bought  at  a  reasonable  price,  and  their  conversion  into  dwellings 
was  practically  the  first  step  of  the  company.  Predictions  were  freely 
indulged  in  that  a  type  of  dwellings  containing  so  many  stories  would 
not  be  acceptable  to  the  Manchester  working  people,  and  that  tenants 
could  not  be  found  to  climb  six  or  seven  flights  of  stairs.  However, 
these  expectations  were  not  fulfilled,  and  the  single-room  tenements  on 
the  top  floor  were  the  first  to  be  taken.  When  the  premises  were 
formally  opened  there  was  not  a  single  tenement  of  this  character  to 
be  had. 

The  site  of  the  buildings  was  well  chosen,  there  being  large  open 
spaces  on  every  side.  It  is  at  the  junction  of  two  canals,  and  there  is 
a  large  uncovered  area  at  the  back,  now  utilized  as  a  playground  for 
children,  which  will  soon,  by  the  aid  of  a  special  fund,  be  furnished 
with  swings  and  other  apparatus  for  physical  recreation.  The  total 
area  of  the  property  is  28,202  square  feet,  about  44  per  cent  of  which 
has  been  covered  with  buildings.  The  courtyard  is  covered  with  cin¬ 
ders,  and  there  is  besides  a  stone  paved  walk.  The  principal  building 
contains  seven  stories,  and  the  smaller  five  stories.  Brick  is  the  mate¬ 
rial  of  construction.  The  roofing  is  of  slate,  and  the  stairways  are  of 
concrete  and  iron.  The  floors  are  concrete  laid  upon  brick  vaulting,  so 
that  every  arrangement  has  been  made  to  secure  fireproof  quality. 
There  is  a  cellar,  which  is  likewise  concreted,  and  in  which  there  has 
been  placed  a  large  boiler  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  hot  water. 
The  accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  33)  shows  the  position  of  the  build¬ 
ings  and  the  arrangement  of  rooms. 

There  are  no  interior  corridors  or  staircases.  The  stairways,  water- 
closets,  and  ash  shoots  are  located  at  the  two  extreme  ends  of  the 
buildings,  and  are  separated  by  heavy  brick  walls  from  the  rest  of  the 
structure.  Corridors  or  balconies  run  along  the  entire  front  and  rear 
outside  of  the  buildings.  Tenants  reach  their  apartments  either  from 
the  front  or  rear  corridor,  according  to  location.  The  corridors  or 
balconies  are  separated  at  the  middle  house,  so  that  people  living  in 
H.  Ex.  354 - 17 


258  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


one-half  liave  no  access  to  the  other  half.  By  this  arrangement  only 
from  four  to  seven  families  can  use  the  same  coriiclor.  All  exterior 
doors  open  directly  upon  the  corridors.  The  latter  are  open  and  in 
full  view  of  the  street  or  court.  All  two-room  tenements  have  through 
circulation  from  front  to  rear,  the  windows  and  doors  opening  on  the 
street  and  court.  One-room  tenements  are  back-to-back,  but  as  all 
have  ventilators  opening  to  the  chimney,  it  is  said  that  good  circula¬ 
tion  is  obtained.  Besides  the  distribution  of  chambers  in  the  way 
already  outlined,  there  are  special  means  of  ventilation.  The  air  enters 
each  room  at  the  meeting  rail  of  windows,  and  the  vitiated  atmosphere 
leaves  through  gratings  placed  near  the  ceiling  into  flues  which  are 
carried  above  the  roof.  Stairways  are  partly  open,  so  that  they,  also, 
have  through  circulation. 

One-room  tenements  are  rented  only  to  families  consisting  of  hus¬ 
band,  wife,  and  two  children  under  5  years  of  age.  These  and  the  two- 
room  tenements  have  partitioned  recesses  for  placing  beds,  so  that 
a  fair  degree  of  privacy  may  be  secured. 

Water-closets  have  been  provided  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  every  two 
families.  They  are  situated  outside  the  buildings.  The  bowls  are  of 
earthenware,  and  the  seat  is  hinged  and  weighted  at  the  back  so  that 
it  automatically  rises  when  not  in  use;  the  bowl  can  then  be  utilized 
as  a  urinal  without  danger  to  cleanliness.  Flushing  takes  place 
automatically  as  soon  as  the  wooden  seat  rises.  Not  only  are  the  soil 
pipes  carried  above  the  roof  full  size,  but  each  trap  is  separately 
ventilated.  Drains  are  ventilated  at  their  highest  points,  and  at 
intervals  manholes  are  placed  so  that  the  interior  between  the  man¬ 
holes  may  be  made  visible  to  the  eye,  and  the  position  of  any  stoppage 
immediately  ascertained.  Indeed,  every  detail  of  arrangement  has 
been  subjected  to  the  approval  of  the  municipal  authorities,  and 
model  sanitary  conditions  have  been  complied  with.  Hot  and  cold 
water  is  run  to  every  kitchen,  and  no  extra  charge  is  made  for  con¬ 
tinuous  service  day  and  night.  Gas  is  also  supplied  free  of  charge, 
but  it  is  turned  off  at  11  o’clock  each  evening.  There  is  a  cooking 
range  in  each  tenement,  and  a  fire  grate  in  each  bedroom.  For  fuel 
storage  a  box  has  been  placed  in  every  tenement,  which  may  be  filled 
from  the  outside  through  a  special  opening  in  the  wall.  An  ash  shoot 
is  provided  on  each  landing,  and  the  refuse  is  removed  daily  by  the 
company.  A  cupboard  has  been  placed  in  each  kitchen,  and  clothes 
hooks  have  been  provided  in  lieu  of  closets.  There  are  sinks  under 
the  hot  and  cold  water  taps.  Walls  are  plastered  and  calcimined  with 
an  antiseptic  preparation.  There  are  no  external  decorations,  not  even 
window  shutters.  Laundries,  drying  rooms,  and  a  drying  ground  have 
been  provided.  The  use  of  the  laundry  is  charged  for  at  the  rate  of 
Id.  (2  cents)  per  hour.  There  are  also  baths,  provided  with  hot  and 
cold  water,  for  the  use  of  which  a  fee  of  Id.  (2  cents)  is  charged. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


259 


The  buildings  have  been  divided  into  147  tenements — 39  of  which 
are  single-room  tenements  and  the  remainder  tenements  of  two  rooms. 
Single-room  tenements  contain  about  1,700  cubic  feet;  the  largest  size 
two-room  tenements  contain  3,677  cubic  feet,  and  the  smallest  size  two- 
room  tenements  contain  3,092  cubic  feet.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  6  inches 
high. 

One-room  tenements,  with  recesses  for  bed,  rent  for  3s.  (73  cents)  per 
week  in  the  fourth  story,  and  2s.  (49  cents)  per  week  in  the  seventh 
story.  Two-room  tenements,  with  recesses  for  bed,  rent  from  3s.  9d.  to 
4s.  6d.  (91  cents  to  $1.10)  per  week  in  the  first  three  stories,  from  3s.  Od. 
to  4s.  3d.  (85  cents  to  $1.03)  in  the  fourth  story,  from  3s.  3d.  to  4s.  (79 
cents  to  97  cents)  in  the  fifth  story,  from  3s.  3d.  to  3s.  9d.  (79  cents  to 
91  cents)  in  the  sixth  story,  and  from  2s.  9d.  to  3s.  3d.  (67  cents  to  79 
cents)  in  the  seventh  story.  Two-room  tenements,  having  two  bed 
recesses,  rent  for  4s.  9d.  ($1.16)  per  week  in  the  first  three  stories,  4s.  Od. 
($1.10)  in  the  fourth  story,  4s.  3d.  ($1.03)  in  the  fifth  story,  4s.  (97  cents) 
in  the  sixth  story,  and  3s.  9d.  (91  cents)  in  the  seventh  story.  The  total 
sum  received  for  rent  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  October  31,  1893, 
was  £984  11s.  6d.  ($4,791.43).  There  had  been,  perhaps,  an  average 
population  of  500  in  the  buildings,  among  which  there  had  been  but 
two  deaths  during  the  first  eight  months  after  opening,  both  infants 
under  two  months  old.  There  had  been  five  births  during  the  same 
period,  all  legitimate. 

The  buildings  were  opened  for  habitation  March  28,  1892.  The  esti¬ 
mated  value  of  the  land  was  £3,500  ($17,032.75),  while  the  cost  of  the 
buildings  ready  for  habitation,  excluding  the  price  of  land,  was 
£15,582  14s.  Sd.  ($75,833.37).  The  capital  stock  of  the  company  sub¬ 
scribed  and  paid  up  to  October  31, 1893,  was  £10,840  ($52,752.86).  The 
nominal  capital  is  £20,000  ($97,330).  The  company  was  founded  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  good  accommodation  for  a  neglected  class, 
rather  than  for  earning  money  for  the  stockholders.  At  the  same  time, 
financial  considerations  are  not  lost  sight  of,  and  it  is  expected  that  the 
investment  will  be  made  to  pay  in  a  commercial  as  well  as  in  a  philan¬ 
thropic  sense. 

A  statement  from  the  president  of  the  corporation,  Mr.  Henry  Simon, 
under  date  of  April  2,  1894,  is  as  follows: 

I  may  say  that  so  far  we  are,  financially,  not  successful.  We  are  not 
earning  even  a  small  interest,  partly  on  account  of  the  estimates  having 
been  rather  lower  than  they  ought  to  have  been,  and  capital  expendi¬ 
ture  consequently  larger;  especially,  however,  because  we  are  address¬ 
ing  ourselves  to  the  lowest  stratum  of  work  people,  who,  whenever  out 
of  work,  have  not  money  to  pay  their  rent.  We  have  therefore  contin¬ 
ually  a  certain  amount  of  houses  or  lodgings  empty,  or  occupied  by  peo¬ 
ple  who  can  not  pay  rent  and  can  not  be  got  out  under  the  English  law 
as  expeditiously  as  desirable.  Large  laborers’  dwellings,  with  latest 
improvements  and  almost  regardless  of  capital  expenditure,  are  being 
got  ready  in  the  same  neighborhood  by  the  city  authorities.  This  may 
further  adversely  influence  our  financial  situation. 


260  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Bents  are  paid  weekly,  in  advance,  to  tlie  resident  superintendent. 
Seven  days’  notice  of  intention  to  leave  is  required.  There  is  no  defi¬ 
nite  practice  in  relation  to  arrearages,  circumstances  governing  each 
case.  Not  considering  the  cost  of  hot  water  supply  and  gas,  rents  are 
about  6d.  (12  cents)  per  week  cheaper  than  for  similar  accommodation 
in  the  neighborhood. 

Clnbrooms  for  both  men  and  women  have  been  fitted  up  for  the  use 
of  tenants.  Outside  help  in  the  way  of  furnishing  social  entertain¬ 
ments  and  lectures  comes  from  the  board  of  directors  and  their  friends, 
and  expenses  are  usually  defrayed  from  a  special  fund.  Newspapers 
and  games  are  a  permanent  feature  of  these  institutions.  The  social 
features  that  have  been  provided  in  connection  with  the  company’s 
housing  activities  are  well  patronized. 

IMPROVED  INDUSTRIAL  COMPANY,  NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 

A  company  was  formed  in  1870  called  the  Improved  Industrial  Com¬ 
pany,  in  which  individual  members  of  the  city  corporation  were  inter¬ 
ested  as  shareholders.  The  first  block  of  buildings,  erected  in  1870, 
consisted  of  28  sets  of  two-room .  tenements  in  the  front  (including  two 
shops),  and  12  one-room  tenements  in  the  rear.  The  rents  of  the  front 
tenements  range  from  3s.  9d,  to  4s.  Gd.  (91  cents  to  $1.10)  per  week. 
The  rent  of  single  rooms  ranges  from  2s.  3d.  to  2s.  Gd.  (55  cents  to  61 
cents)  per  week.  The  rents  include  gas,  water,  and  use  of  wash  house 
in  the  yard.  The  buildings  are  four  stories  high.  For  nine  years  the 
block  paid  the  shareholders  5  per  cent. 

In  1879  the  directors  having  determined  to  extend  the  buildings, 
erected  a  structure  containing  64  tenements  of  two  rooms  each,  besides 
four  large  shops  and  a  spacious  reading  and  recreation  room.  About 
one-half  of  the  sum  necessary,  namely,  £8,000  ($38,932),  was  borrowed 
from  the  public  works  loan  commissioners  and  is  repayable  in  equal 
half-yearly  installments  extending  over  a  period  of  forty  years  with 
interest  on  the  amount  due  at  4  per  cent.  This  step  somewhat  crip¬ 
pled  the  financial  success  of  the  company,  and  since  then  the  dividends 
to  stockholders  have  been  less  than  previously. 

GLASGOW  WORKMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  GLASGOW. 

This  company  was  incorporated  April  9, 1890.  Its  objects  are:  (1)  To 
provide  for  workingmen  healthy  and  comfortable  dwellings  and  accesso¬ 
ries,  including  shop,  store,  wash  house,  laundry,  kitchen,  reading  and 
recreation  room,  and  other  accommodations.  (2)  To  acquire  houses, 
buildings,  and  lands,  absolutely  or  conditionally,  with  power  to  appro¬ 
priate  portions  of  such  lands  for  roads,  streets,  squares,  gardens,  and 
for  drying,  pleasure,  and  recreation  grounds.  (3)  To  pull  down,  alter, 
construct,  and  erect  buildings  and  accessories,  etc. 

The  dividend  is  limited  to  5  per  cent  per  annum.  Any  surplus  profit 
is  applied  to  the  furtherance  of  the  company’s  objects,  to  create  a  reserve 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  CLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


261 


fund,  to  equalize  dividends,  and  to  cover  depreciation.  This  company 
is  one  of  the  outgrowths  of  a  lecture  delivered  by  Dr.  James  B.  ltussell, 
medical  officer  of  health  for  Glasgow,  a  few  years  ago.  In  the  course 
of  the  lecture  above  referred  to  Dr.  Russell  said: 

Percentages,  though  an  accurate,  are  but  a  feeble  mode  of  expression 
for  facts  regarding  men  and  women  like  ourselves.  I  have  told  you 
that  in  1881  the  population  of  Glasgow  was  511,520  persons,  and  that 
of  those  25  per  cent  lived  in  one-room,  and  45  per  cent  in  two-room 
houses;  but  what  does  that  mean?  It  means  that  12G,000  persons  live 
in  those  one-rooin,  and  228,000  in  those  two-room  houses.  But  is  that 
all  I  can  say?  I  might  throw  down  that  statement  before  you,  and 
ask  you  to  imagine  yourselves  with  all  your  appetites  and  passions, 
your  bodily  necessities  and  functions,  your  feelings  of  modesty,  your 
sense  of  propriety,  your  births,  your  sicknesses,  your  deaths,  your  chil¬ 
dren — in  short,  your  lives  in  the  whole  round  of  their  relationships  with 
the  seen  and  the  unseen,  suddenly  shriveled  and  shrunk  into  such 
conditions  of  space.  I  might  ask  yon,  I  do  ask  you,  to  consider  and 
honestly  confess  what  would  be  the  result  to  you.  *  *  * 

It  is  those  small  houses  which  produce  the  high  death  rate  of  Glas¬ 
gow.  It  is  those  small  houses  which  give  to  that  death  rate  the  striking 
characteristics  of  an  enormous  proportion  of  deaths  in  childhood,  and 
of  deaths  from  diseases  of  the  lungs  at  all  ages.  *  *  *  There  you 

will  find  year  after  year  a  death  rate  of  38  per  1,000,  while  in  the  dis¬ 
tricts  with  larger  houses  it  is  only  1G  or  17.  Of  all  the  children  who 
die  in  Glasgow  before  they  complete  their  fifth  year  32  per  cent  die  in 
houses  of  one  apartment;  and  not  2  per  cent  in  houses  of  five  apart¬ 
ments  and  upward.  There  they  die  and  their  little  bodies  are  laid  on 
a  table  or  on  the  dresser,  so  as  to  be  somewhat  out  of  the  way  of  their 
brothers  and  sisters,  who  play  and  sleep  and  eat  in  their  ghastly  com¬ 
pany.  From  beginning  to  rapid  ending  the  lives  of  these  children  are 
short  parts  in  a  continuous  tragedy.  A  large  proportion  enter  life  by 
the  side  door  of  illegitimacy.  One  in  every  five  who  are  born  there 
never  seethe  end  of  their  first  year.  Of  those  who  so  prematurely  die, 
a  third  have  never  been  seen  in  their  sickness  by  any  doctor.  Every 
year  in  Glasgow  the  deaths  of  from  60  to  70  children  under  5  years  of 
age  are  classified  by  the  registrar-general  as  due  to  accident  or  negli¬ 
gence;  and  it  is  wholly  in  these  small  houses  that  such  deaths  occur. 
Half  of  that  number  are  overlain  by  drunken  mothers,  others  fall  over 
windows  and  downstairs,  are  drowned  in  tubs  and  pails  of  water, 
scalded,  or  burned,  or  poisoned  with  whisky.  I  can  only  venture  to 
lift  a  corner  of  the  curtain  which  veils  the  life  that  is  lived  in  tliqse 
houses.  It  is  impossible  to  show  you  more. 

******* 

The  question  for  us  is,  What  can  we  do?  The  solution  of  the  social 
problem  of  the  age  is  for  us  the  doing  of  something  here  and  now. 

Mr.  John  Mann,  jr.,  the  active  secretary  of  the  corporation,  in  a 
memorandum  issued  to  the  Glasgow  Improvement  Trustees  in  April, 
1891,  in  connection  with  the  company’s  offer  for  ground  in  a  certain 
locality,  set  forth  the  principles  upon  which  the  company  proposed  to 
operate.  .  It  was  stated  that  the  company  was  anxious  to  erect,  in  the 
center  of  the  city,  simple  and  sound  houses  to  be  let  at  low  enough 
rent  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  struggling  laboring  class — the  unskilled 
class — and  to  yield  a  return  of  not  more  than  5  per  ceut  on  the  cost. 


262  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


This  class  is  included  in  the  75,000  inhabitants  of  ticketed  houses  in 
Glasgow,  of  which  there  were  at  that  time  23,000.  Its  chief  anxiety 
was  to  provide  for  the  tenants  of  ticketed  houses,  who  were  being  con¬ 
tinually  displaced  under  the  operation  of  sanitary  law,  as  near  as  pos¬ 
sible  in  the  center  of  the  city.  The  necessities  of  such  people  had  not 
been  previously  ministered  to  by  private  enterprise  because  it  was 
assumed  that  it  could  not  be  made  profitable.  The  earning  of  the 
dividend  is  not  so  much  the  object  of  the  company  as  the  erecting  of 
simple,  sound,  and  cheap  houses;  but  unless  a  reasonable  return  is 
obtained  upon  the  capital  invested  there  will  be  no  inducement  to  under¬ 
take  the  work  on  commercial  lines.  It  is  only  upon  ordinary  com¬ 
mercial  lines  that  the  movement  for  the  better  housing  of  the  poor  will 
grow  and  succeed.  Otherwise  the  rehousing  of  the  struggling  poor  of 
the  city  displaced  by  the  advance  of  sanitary  science  must  be  seriously 
undertaken  either  (1)  by  the  poor  law  officials:  (2)  by  the  corporation 
with  rate  supported  dwellings;  or  (3)  by  the  ratepayers,  on  purely  chari¬ 
table  lines. 

The  buildings  constructed  by  this  company  are  known  as  Cathedral 
Court,  and  are  situated  at  Rottenrow,  N os.  25  to  33.  The  buildin gs  were 
opened  in  May,  1892.  The  location  is  a  convenient  one  for  working 
people.  The  lot  is  somewhat  irregular  in  shape.  It  has  a  frontage  of 
80  feet  approximately,  and  a  depth  of  136  feet.  Less  than  one  half  of 
the  ground  has  been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  in  the  form  of  a 
courtyard  between  the  north  and  south  buildings,  and  a  small  court¬ 
yard  south  of  the  block.  There  are  gravel  walks  on  three  sides,  and 
the  remaining  space  is  laid  out  with  shrubbery,  a  work  due  to  the 
Glasgow  Kyrle  Society.  The  space  is  entirely  given  up  to  the  free  use 
of  occupants.  The  buildings  contain  five  stories  and  are  constructed 
of  rough  stone.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  varies  from  20  to 
16  inches.  The  flat  portion  of  the  roof  is  covered  with  concrete  and 
asphalt  over  iron  joists.  The  sloped  portion  is  covered  with  timber  and 
slates.  Granolithic,  resembling  red  sandstone,  is  the  material  of  which 
staircases  are  made.  No  other  arrangements  exist  in  the  buildings  to 
make  them  fireproof.  Galleries  on  the  outside  of  the  buildings  lead¬ 
ing  to  the  staircases  form  a  sufficient  means  of  escape  in  case  of  fire. 
There  is  no  cellar,  but  there  is  a  basement  in  the  south  block  which  is  to 
be  occupied  together  with  a  ground  floor  by  the  University  Settlement 
Association.  A 

The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  34  A  and  34  B),  showing  the 
front  elevation  and  the  distribution  of  rooms,  will  effectively  assist  the 
reader  in  understanding  the  character  of  the  buildings. 

In  the  interior  at  one  end  there  is  a  staircase  and  gallery  3  feet  wide 
having  large  openings  or  windows  on  two  sides  and  well  ventilated. 
Dwellings  are  reached  from  galleries  which  run  along  the  court  sided 
the  building  with  the  exception  of  two  tenements  in  the  north  block, 
which  open  on  the  stair  landing.  All  tenants  in  one  building  use  the 


CATHEDRAL  COURT,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  34  a. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


263 


same  staircase  and  all  on  a  single  floor  use  the  same  gallery  The 
greatest  inconvenience  of  this  exterior  gallery  is  that  the  independence 
and  isolation  of  the  individual  family  is  not  so  easily  secured.  Tenants 
living  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  gallery  pass  directly  in  front  of  their 
neighbors’  doors  and  windows,  going  to  and  from  the  staircase.  Still  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  aim  of  the  company  is  to  provide  for  casual 
workers,  and  therefore  not  merely  luxuriesbut  many  of  thecostlicr  desira¬ 
bilities  in  construction  had  to  be  renounced.  The  windows  open  both 
to  the  court  and  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  building,  so  that  through 
ventilation  is  secured  in  each  tenement.  The  windows  are  double  hung. 
Water-closets  are  situated  on  the  stair  landings  and  one  serves  for  two 
families,  though  outside  dwellings  are  completely  isolated.  About  five 
persons  on  the  average  use  the  same  closet.  The  overhead  self-tilling 
tank  with  flush-out  system  is  used.  Water-closets  are  properly  trapped 
and  soil  pipes  ventilated.  Sewerage  pipes  are  of  cast  iron.  An  unlim¬ 
ited  supply  of  water  is  allowed.  Heating  is  done  by  ranges  and  grates. 
Each  kitchen  is  provided  with  a  cooking  range  and  a  coal  box.  A  tire- 
place  has  been  put  in  each  bedroom.  Gas  or  oil  lamps  furnish  the 
light.  Washing  is  not  permitted  in  the  lodgings.  Laundries  and  dry¬ 
ing  courts  have  been  constructed  on  the  roof.  Dust  shafts  are  the 
receptacles  for  ashes  and  similar  waste.  The  rest  is  burned.  There  is 
a  sink  with  water  in  the  kitchen.  Gas  pipes  have  been  carried  to  every 
room,  but  tenants  must  furnish  the  brackets.  In  each  laundry  are  six 
copper  boilers  and  ten  tubs  with  furnaces  for  heating.  An  iron  bed¬ 
stead  has  been  provided  in  every  bedroom.  Externally  the  buildings, 
while  not  displeasing,  are  devoid  of  any  attempt  at  decoration.  Interior 
decoration  is  entirely  lacking. 

The  buildings  contain  17  one-room  and  41  two-room  tenements.  The 
air  space  of  the  former  class  of  tenements  is  1,200  cubic  feet  and  of 
the  latter  1,800  cubic  feet.  The  living  rooms  are  13  feet  4  inches  by  10 
feet  in  the  one  room  and  13  by  10  feet  in  the  two-room  tenements,  and 
the  extra  bedrooms  in  the  two-room  tenements  are  7  by  10  feet.  The 
ceilings  are  0  feet  high. 

The  buildings  were  fully  occupied  during  the  last  year  (1893).  No 
epidemics  have  taken  place  in  the  buildings  notwithstanding  that  there 
was  fever  in  the  surrounding  districts.  Among  the  370  occupants  of 
the  different  buildings  belonging  to  this  company  but  two  persons  over 
5  years  of  age  died.  The  tenants  have  noted  an  improvement  in  the 
health  of  their  children  since  taking  up  their  residence  in  these  model 
tenements. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lots  was  approximately  £1,100  ($5,353.15), 
while  the  cost  of  the  buildings  was  £6,528  ($31,768.51). 

The  rent  of  the  single-room  tenements  is  Is.  9d.  (43  cents)  per  week, 
while  the  price  charged  for  two  room  tenements  varies  from  2s.  6d.  to 
2s.  8d.  (61  to  65  cents)  weekly.  A  bonus  of  a  fortnight’s  rent  each  J une 
and  December  is  granted  to  all  who  have  paid  promptly  in  advance 


264  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR.  . 

and  kejit  the  rules.  The  sum  returned  as  a  bonus  to  tenants  during 
one-half  of  the  last  fiscal  year  was  £12  5s.  Id.  ($59.63).  At  this  rate 
the  bonus  would  amount  to  about  7  per  cent  of  the  annual  rent  roll. 

The  property  of  the  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company  consists  of  two 
model  and  four  renovated  buildings,  as  well  as  a  new  estate  recently 
purchased.  Without  counting  the  last  the  accommodation  furnished 
consists  of  47  one-room  and  71  two-room  tenements.  These  are  rented 
only  and  are  not  allowed  to  be  imrchased  by  individuals  inhabiting 
them  as  is  the  practice  in  some  large  cities,  notably,  Dundee.  The 
authorized  share  capital  is  £50,000  ($243,325)  ;  £40,780  ($198,455.87) 
have  been  subscribed  and  £10,165  ($49,467.97)  called  for  and  paid  in. 
Two  and  one-half  per  cent  dividend  was  declared  at  the  end  of  the 
fiscal  year,  on  June  30,  1893,  but  it  must  be  remarked  that  this  is  not  a 
fair  test  of  the  earning  capacity  of  the  company’s  property.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  maximum  rate  of  interest  permitted  to 
be  paid  (5  per  cent)  will  yet  be  earned.  If  the  balance  set  aside  and 
not  used  for  dividend  purposes  is  included,  3.1  per  cent  would  repre¬ 
sent  the  net  profit  the  first  year.  The  amount  of  borrowed  capital  is 
£4,100  3s.  S£d.  ($19,953.55),  only  £1,500  ($7,299.75)  of  which  is  a  bonded 
debt;  the  rest  is  in  the  form  of  temporary  loans; 

The  total  estimated  value  of  the  property  owned  by  the  Glasgow 
Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  with  the  exception  of  the  newly 
acquired  estate,  is  £11,500  ($55,904.75).  The  total  sum  received  for 
rent  during  the  last  fiscal  year  (1893)  was  £742  16s.  6£d.  ($3,614.97). 
The  loss  of  rental  resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  was  £5  14s.  Id. 
($27.76);  £4  14s.  9d.  ($23.06)  of  this  latter  sum  was  due  to  necessary 
vacancy  caused  by  alterations  made  in  the  building.  The  percentage 
of  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  year  was  so  slight  as  to  make  its 
computation  unnecessary.  Rents  are  paid  weekly,  in  advance.  Deposit 
of  a  sum  equal  to  four  weeks’  rent  has  to  be  made  by  the  tenant  upon 
entering  on  the  occupancy  of  his  apartment.  This  caution  insures  the 
company  against  damages  or  loss.  Kents  are  collected  by  a  committee 
of  ladies  from  the  Kyrle  Society.  The  object  of  the  housing  branch  of 
this  organization  in  assuming  the  rent  collection  is  to  bring  elevating 
influences  to  bear  upon  their  clients  as  well  as  to  render  them  practical 
service  in  other  ways. 

The  efficiency  of  this  rent  collection  method  may  be  gauged  from 
the  fact  that  the  sum  lost  through  nonpayment  of  arrearages  during 
the  last  fiscal  year  was  3s.  2d.  (77  cents)  out  of  the  total  rent  roll  of 
£742  16s.  6Jd.  ($3,614.97).  Rents  are  slightly  lower  than  are  charged 
for  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  the  aim  of  the 
company  to  fix  the  rents  in  accordance  with  prevailing  prices.  The 
occupations  and  earnings  of  heads  of  tenant  families  in  the  Cathedral 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  2G5 

Court  property,  as  revealed  by  the  census  taken  February  15, 1893,  were 
as  follows: 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  CATHEDRAL  COURT,  GLASGOW. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Machinists . 

2 

Church  cleaner . . 

1 

Paper  maker . . 

1 

Machine  worker . 

1 

Van  man . . . 

1 

] 

Waterproof  maker . 

1 

Ironworker . 

1 

Joiner . . 

] 

Painters . 

O 

Picture-frame  maker. . . 

1 

Charwoman . 

] 

Railroad  hand . 

1 

No  occupation  (invalid) . 

1 

1 

Dealer . 

1 

No  occupation . 

3 

Seam  stress . . 

1 

Cloth  lapper . 

1 

Slater . 

1 

1 

Jacket  finisher . 

1 

Carpet  designer . 

1 

2 

2 

Pottery  workman ...... 

1 

Calender  uian . 

1 

Salesman . 

1 

The  average  earnings  of  these  people  was  about  23s.  Gd.  ($5.72) 
weekly.  A  reference  to  the  rentals  shows  that,  roughly  speaking,  10 
per  cent  of  the  earnings  are  absorbed  in  payment  of  rent.  Tenants 
are  not  allowed  to  sublet  or  receive  boarders  except  under  written  per¬ 
mission  of  the  company. 

Of  the  Cathedral  Court  tenants,  2  live  under  one-half  mile  from  their 
places  of  employment,  10  from  one-half  to  one  mile,  4  from  1  to  2  miles, 
1  7£  miles,  and  5  of  the  remainder  from  whom  facts  could  be  elicited, 
have  no  fixed  places  of  work. 

The  rules  are  printed  in  a  receipt  book  given  to  tenants  in  which 
entries  of  rental  payments  are  made.  The  most  important — items  in 
relation  to  the  deposit,  period  of  payment  of  rent,  notice  of  removal, 
arrearages,  ejectment,  and  overcrowding — have  already  been  noted. 
The  remainder  has  particular  reference  to  damage  to  property  and  the 
utilization  of  sinks,  chimneys,  closets,  dust  shafts,  the  use  of  laundries, 
and  infectious  diseases.  Appurtenances  broken  must  be  repaired  at  the 
tenant’s  expense  within  a  week.  Stairs,  water-closets,  and  balconies  are 
to  be  swept  daily  and  washed  each  Wednesday  and  Saturday  by  the 
tenants  of  each  floor  in  the  order  of  the  numbers  of  the  rooms.  Children 
are  not  allowed  to  make  a  noise  on  the  stairs  or  balconies  or  to  be  in  the 
court  after  dark.  The  door  leading  to  the  roof  is  to  be  constantly 
closed.  The  balconies  must  not  be  used  for  drying  or  hanging  out 
clothes,  etc.,  or  for  shaking  carpets,  nor  must  any  article  be  thrown 
into  the  court.  A  charge  of  Gd.  (12  cents)  is  made  upon  every  tenant 
where  sinks  become  choked  by  reason  of  any  solid  matter  thrown  into 
them.  Tenants  are  obliged  to  sweep  chimneys  in  regular  turn  once 
every  three  months.  In  default  the  care-taker  has  the  cleaning  done 
at  a  charge  of  Gd.  (12  cents)  to  the  tenant.  For  water-closets  aud  dust 
shafts  the  following  statement  is  made :  Nothing  large  enough  to  cause 
stoppage  must  be  thrown  in  the  closets  or  dust  shafts.  Such  stoppages 
entail  so  much  trouble  and  expense  that  any  tenant  causing  them  will 
be  served  with  a  notice  to  leave.  Cases  of  infectious  diseases  must  be 
reported  at  once  to  the  care-taker.  Failure  involves  immediate  notice 
to  leave. 


266  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  duties  of  the  care-taker  are :  (1)  To  select  suitable  tenants ;  (2) 
to  supervise  the  building,  to  prevent  overcrowding  and  subletting, 
and  enforce  order  and  quietness;  (3)  to  see  that  proper  use  is  made  of 
the  water  supply,  water  closets,  wash  houses,  dust  shafts,  etc.;  (4)  to 
enforce  strictly  cleansing  of  stairs,  balconies,  courts,  etc.;  (5)  to  report 
infectious  diseases;  (0)  to  make  minor  repairs. 

The  ground  floor  of  the  buildings  contains  large,  airy  rooms  which  are 
elaborately  fitted  up  for  the  use  of  the  University  Settlement  Associa¬ 
tion,  which  now  makes  this  place  its  headquarters  and  does  similar 
work  to  that  accomplished  at  Toynbee  Hall  in  London.  The  partici¬ 
pants  are  mostly  students  of  the  Glasgow  University.  On  the  second 
floor  of  the  same  building  rooms  are  being  fitted  up  for  industrial  classes 
for  women,  in  this  way  tenants  will  be  benefited  by  the  work  of  the 
society  and  be  enabled  to  participate  in  the  benefits  of  association  in 
clubs. 

The  rent  paid  by  the  University  Settlement  Association  for  the  rooms 
is  £58  ($282.26)  annually.  A  ten  years’  lease  has  been  taken. 

The  ladies  of  the  Glasgow  Social  Union  contemplate  opening  a  day 
nursery  in  the  building  for  children  of  the  working  people,  but  this 
step  has  not  yet  been  definitely  decided  upon. 

The  activities  of  the  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company  have  not  been 
confined  to  the  provision  of  new  model  tenements.  It  recognized  that 
there  was  a  field  for  operation  in  purchasing  old  property,  putting  it 
into  thoroughly  good  sanitary  condition,  and  renting  it  to  individuals 
with  probably  lower  and  more  uncertain  incomes  than  those  who  would 
likely  go  into  new  tenements.  Its  experience  has  been  very  satisfactory 
with  this  branch  of  work  so  far.  Should  ultimate  success  be  attained 
a  vast  service  will  have  been  rendered  by  this  company  toward  the 
solution  of  a  very  difficult  phase  of  the  housing  problem.  The  con¬ 
dition  of  the  George  Court  property  when  bought  was  so  filthy  and  it 
was  so  full  of  vermin  that  many  workingmen  refused  to  work  upon  it. 
The  buildings  were  of  stone,  three  stories  high,  with  a  courtyard  at  the 
rear.  The  halls  originally  were  very  narrow  and  dark.  Large  cup¬ 
boards  took  up  the  greater  part  of  the  space  of  the  rooms.  The  walls 
and  floors  were  filthy,  and  one  privy  in  the  court  served  for  over  sixty 
families.  Some  of  the  rooms  were  too  dark  and  close  to  be  fit  for 
human  habitation.  All  these  conditions  have  been  changed  and  the 
dwellings  rendered  cheerful  and  clean.  New  floors-have  been  put  in 
everywhere  and  walls  replastered,  the  woodwork,  window  sills,  etc., 
repaired  and  painted,  and  the  large  clothespresses  have  been  greatly 
reduced  in  size.  Water,  sinks,  ranges,  grates,  double  shelves,  cup¬ 
boards,  stands,  and  coal  boxes  have  been  put  in  all  the  dwellings. 
The  dark  halls  have  been  lighted  by  means  of  skylights.  Iron  beds 
have  been  placed  in  every  habitation.  Extensions  have  been  built  for 
water-closets,  twelve  in  number,  so  that  not  more  than  four  families 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


267 


will  be  obliged  to  use  the  same  one.  A  laundry  for  the  use  of  tenants 
was  also  constructed  in  the  courtyard.  A  fireplace  was  put  in  eacli 
tenement  as  well  as  a  grate  with  a  small  oven. 

The  buildings  were  arranged  into  one  and  two  room  tenements,  about 
eight  opening  to  the  same  corridor.  Ceilings  are  8J  feet  high.  In  the 
one-room  tenements  the  average  contents  of  a  small  size  living  room  is 
961  cubic  feet,  and  of  a  large  size  room  1,216  cubic  feet.  In  the  two- 
room  tenements  the  front  rooms  contain  about  2,000  cubic  feet  and 
back  rooms  1,800,  The  buildings  accommodate  sixty  families.  There 
are  30  one-room  and  30  two-room  tenements.  The  average  rental  for 
the  former  is  £5  4s.  ($25.31)  a  year  and  for  the  latter  £7  Is.  ($34.31). 
The  original  cost  of  the  land  and  buildings  put  in  habitable  condition 
was  £4,340  ($21,120.61). 

In  1893  the  company  purchased  and  renovated  in  the  same  thorough 
manner  four  old  buildings.  They  were  all  opened  and  quickly  rented. 
The  directors  of  the  company  expect  to  realize  not  less  than  4  per  cent 
on  houses  of  this  class. 

The  results  of  alterations  are  shown  in  the  following  statement  of 
rentals,  etc.,  in  these  renovated  houses: 

\  RENTALS  OF  HOUSES  IN  ARDGOWAN  PLACE  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  ALTERATIONS. 


West  building,  30-36. 

East  building,  29-35. 

Formerly. 

As  altered. 

Formerly. 

As  altered. 

Rental . 

$1,445.  35 

$1,313.96 

$1, 304.  22 

$1, 440.  48 

Number  of  tenements: 

One  room . 

56 

28 

32 

31 

Two  rooms . 

4 

18 

16 

10 

Total  tenements . 

60 

46 

48 

47 

Average  rent  of  one-room  tenements : 

Net,  per  week . 

$0.46 

$0.  49 

$0.  46 

$0. 49 

Net,  per  month . . . 

2.01 

2.  11 

1.95 

2. 11 

Net,  per  annum . 

24.  09 

25.31 

23.  36 

25.  31 

Average  rent  of  two-room  tenements: 

Net,  per  week . 

.07 

.67 

.59 

.73 

Net,  per  month . 

2.92 

2.92 

2. 56 

3. 16 

Net,  per  annum . 

35. 04 

35.  04 

40.  39 

37. 90 

Average  increase  in  cubic  capacity  (feet) : 

One-room  tenements . 

13 

91 

Two-room  tenements . 

289 

21 

Average  legal  number  inmates : 

One-room  tenements . 

n 

2i 

21 

3 

Two-room  tenements . 

51 

5* 

51 

The  average  earnings  of  each  household  when  fully  employed  are 
about  22s.  ($5.35)  per  week. 

The  experience  of  this  corporation  seems  to  indicate  that  better 
economic  results  will  attend  the  purchase  and  renovation  of  slum  prop¬ 
erty  than  the  building  of  new  model  tenements.  There  may  possibly 
be  some  local  reasons  to  account  for  this.  Indeed,  Dr.  William  Smart, 
one  of  the  directors,  stated  at  the  last  annual  meeting  that  a  great 
deal  of  property  in  Glasgow  had  been  erected  by  speculative  builders, 
had  been  bonded  to  the  last  penny,  and  had  then  been  sold  for  the  price 
of  the  bonds.  Accordingly  it  then  yielded  a  good  interest,  though  the 
rents  were  low.  This,  of  course,  creates  a  favorable  opportunity  for 


2G8  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


the  alternative  operation  of  the  Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany’s  scheme.  Whatever  may  be  the  effects  in  this  regard  it  is  certain 
that  the  beneficent  operations  of  the  company  have  extended  to  a  lower 
stratum  of  working  people  than  has  usually  been  reached  by  model 
housing  agencies.  If  the  purchase  and  renovation  of  bad  property 
can  be  commercially  conducted,  remodeling  housing  companies  are 
likely  to  do  far  more  effective  social  work  than  purely  model  dwellings 
companies. 

MUNICIPAL  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  GLASGOW. 

Under  the  Glasgow  improvement  act  of  1866  the  corporation  of  Glas¬ 
gow  obtained  power  to  deal  with  a  large  area  of  old  and  insanitary 
property,  chiefly  in  the  crowded  parts  of  the  city.  The  City  Improve¬ 
ment  Trust  has  charge  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act.  In 
the  course  of  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  trust  a  good  deal  of  old  prop¬ 
erty  in  that  part  of  the  city  known  as  “Saltmarket,”  where  the  density 
of  population  in  some  parts  bore  the  proportion  of  600,000  to  the  square 
mile,  was  expropriated  and  demolished.  The  necessity  of  making  some 
provision  for  the  dispossessed  people  in  this  district  became  apparent, 
and  failing  to  find  purchasers  for  the  land  the  trustees  themselves  in 
1888  commenced  to  build  model  dwellings.  The  original  intention  was 
to  make  them  dwellings  for  laboring  people.  It  was  also  intended  to 
erect  the  plainest  style  of  buildings,  without  any  attempt  at  ornamen¬ 
tation,  so  that  they  might  be  rented  at  a  comparatively  moderate  figure. 
From  time  to  time,  however,  the  committee  in  charge  amended  the 
plans,  until  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  buildings  has  become  quite 
elaborate,  although  the  outside  remains  plain.  The  cost  of  construc¬ 
tion  reached  such  a  figure  that  the  rent  had  to  be  fixed  at  a  price  where 
the  lowest  classes  of  the  poor  found  it  impossible  to  pay  the  prices. 
The  tenants  of  the  Saltmarket  model  dwellings  to-day  are,  therefore, 
in  the  main,  artisans  in  receipt  of  good  wages.  Some  of  them  are 
shopkeepers  and  clerks,  and  even  a  few  families  are  apparently  so  well 
off'  that  they  can  afford  to  hire  servants. 

Two  groups  of  this  kind  of  dwellings  have  been  erected,  but  a  third, 
which  is  much  plainer  and  less  costly,  situated  across  the  street,  has 
recently  been  opened,  where  rents  are  very  moderate,  and  the  really 
poor  and  casual  workers  may  find  accommodation  within  their  means. 
The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Uos.  35  A  and  35  B)  show  a  section 
(block  1)  of  these  model  dwellings.  * 

The  buildings  are  four  stories  high,  and  occupy  the  entire  frontage  of 
the  lot.  About  one-third  of  the  space  remains  open  at  the  rear,  and 
is  paved  and  utilized  as  a  drying  place  for  clothes  and  a  playground. 
In  Scotland  there  is  great  prejudice  against  the  use  of  any  other 
building  material  than  stone,  and  consequently  these  buildings  are  of 
that  material.  The  walls  are  18  inches  thick,  and  the  buildings  have 
been  constructed  solidly,  so  there  is  little  danger  from  fire.  Fire  escapes 
have  been  placed  at  the  rear.  There  are  no  common  corridors  in  the 
buildings,  occupants  entering  private  hallways  directly  from  the  land- 


IO 


o 


IO 


2.0 


tK 


MUNICIPAL  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  35  a. 


Shop  floor. 

MUNICIPAL  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  35  b. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


269 


ings.  Three  families  are  located  on  each  floor.  Ventilation  and  light¬ 
ing  have  been  thoroughly  provided  for,  every  room  communicating 
directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  There  are  no 
wells  or  light  shafts,  but  the  air  has  free  and  direct  access  to  each 
room.  Each  tenement  has  a  water-closet,  opening  from  the  landing, 
for  the  sole  use  of  occupants.  The  closets  are  provided  with  a  good 
flushing  apparatus,  and  the  soil  pipes,  together  with  waste-water  pipes 
(to  which  the  smoke  test  has  been  applied),  are  placed  outside  the 
buildings.  A  laundry  exists  for  every  nine  families.  Cooking  ranges, 
unprovided  with  hot  water  boilers,  have  been  placed  in  the  kitchens. 
There  is  also  a  storage  box  with  a  capacity  of  300  pounds  for  coal. 
Garbage  receptacles  were  formerly  placed  on  landings;  a  bin  in  the 
back  of  the  court  lias  been  substituted.  This  is  cleaned  daily.  A 
fire-place  is  found  in  each  bedroom.  There  are  no  clotliespresscs, 
mirrors,  chandeliers,  lamps,  window  shutters,  or  balconies  as  fixed 
accessories  to  the  buildings.  Gas  is  provided,  but  at  the  expense  of 
the  tenant.  The  only  interior  decoration  of  importance  is  tile  work 
for  the  hallways  and  in  all  water-closets.  The  original  cost  of  block  1 
of  the  Saltmarket  model  dwellings  was  £10,044  ($48,879.13).  The  land 
is  held  in  feu,  and  the  annual  duty  is  £225  ($1,094.90). 

The  average  rental  of  one-room  tenements  is  3s.  3d.  (79  cents)  per 
week;  two-room  tenements,  4s.  (97  cents)  per  week;  tliree-room  tene¬ 
ments,  5s.  9£d.  ($1.41)  per  week.  These  rents  include  water.  The  total 
sum  received  in  rents  from  block  1  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  May 
31,  1893,  was  £740  10s.  lid.  ($3,005.33).  The  three  groups  of  model 
tenement  dwellings  contain  altogether  00  tenements  of  one  room  each, 
58  of  two  rooms  each,  8  of  three  rooms  each,  15  single  shops,  and  10 
double  shops.  The  authorities  were  at  first  doubtful  of  the  propriety 
of  encouraging  one-room  dwellings,  but  so  great  was  the  need  of 
accommodation  for  the  class  of  people  who  could  not  afford  to  pay 
higher  rents  that  the  new  Saltmarket  model  brick  tenements,  the 
third  group  erected,  was  entirely  given  up  to  one-room  dwellings. 
Each  apartment  is  very  large  and  can  be  easily  separated  into  two 
almost  distinct  chambers,  so  that  unfavorable  results  from  a  large 
family  of  adults  of  different  sexes  living  in  the  same  room  may  be 
avoided.  Separate  lodgings  are  not  sold  to  individuals  inhabiting 
them,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  many  parts  of  Scotland. 

The  money  originally  invested  in  the  three  groups  of  model  tenements 
was  £25,138  ($122,334.08).  The  net  profit  on  fiscal  operations  for  the 
year  ending  May  31,  1893,  was  3.2  per  cent  for  block  1,  3.5  per  cent 
for  block  2,  and  4.G  per  cent  for  block  3.  The  loss  of  rental  resulting 
from  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  same  period  was  £85  7s.  8d. 
($415.52).  Nearly  all  of  this  is  chargeable  to  block  1,  which  for  some 
reason  or  other  during  the  last  three  years  has  not  been  in  favor  as  a 
residence. 

Kents  are  paid  monthly,  and  are  collected  by  a  factor,  or  commission 
agent,  who  calls  for  them.  Upon  assuming  occupancy  a  deposit  of  one 


270  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


month’s  rent  in  advance  is  required  as  security  for  regular  payment. 
The  total  amount  of  arrearages  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  £7  4s.  9d. 
($35.22).  Bents  have  remained  stable. 

The  difficulties  in  evicting  tenants  are  very  considerable.  Before 
undertaking  this  step  the  tenant  must  be  at  least  one  month  in  arrears. 
If  the  sheriff  is  appealed  to  the  cost  of  eviction  is  10s.  ($2.43).  If  the 
case  is  brought  before  a  magistrate  the  expense  may  not  exceed  half 
that  sum.  Tenants  are  generally  not  allowed  to  be  in  arrears  more  than 
two  weeks  before  preliminary  action  is  taken. 

A  curious  characteristic  of  a  great  many  of  the  working  people  has 
been  exemplified  in  the  Glasgow  corporation’s  experience.  It  has 
frequently  been  noticed  that  tenants  will  take  small,  dirty  lodgings  in 
poor  buildings,  though  able  to  pay  lor  better,  in  order  to  save  (id.  per 
week,  while  they  have  no  hesitation  in  spending  a  far  greater  sum  for 
drink,  tobacco,  or  other  luxuries. 

The  occupations  and  average  weekly  earnings,  in  1892,  of  heads  of 
tenant  families  of  blocks  1  and  2  of  the  corporation’s  model  tenements 
appear  in  the  following  table: 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  THE  MUNICIPAL  MODEL 

DWELLINGS,  GLASGOW. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Baker . 

1 

$6.  08 
7.06 

Baker . 

] 

1 

7. 79 

3 

7. 30 

2 

6.  81 

1 

8.  52 

1 

7.  30 

Brush  maker . 

1 

6. 08 

1 

7.30 

2 

7.  79 

1 

5. 35 

1 

5.81 

2 

6.  08 

2 

6.33 

i 

6.  81 

Clerk . 

i 

4.87 

i 

7. 30 

i 

6. 03 

2 

6. 33 

2 

6.  57 

2 

6.  81 

Constable . 

1 

7.  06 

2 

7.79 

Cork  cutter . 

1 

7. 30 

Dealers . 

2 

3. 65 

Dealers . - . 

2 

3.  89 

Dealer . . . . 

1 

6.  08 

Dealer . 

Dealers . 

1 

5 

6.81 
7.  30 

1 

8. 52 

Eugineraan . . 

1 

5.84 

1 

6.  33 

1 

7. 30 

Eish  merchant . 

1 

7. 30 

Ele  slier . 

I 

7.30 

French  polisher _ _ 

1 

7. 30‘ 

Gas  fitter . . . 

1 

5.  84 

Gas  fitter . 

1 

6.  81 

Gut  maker . . . 

1 

9.  73 

Hammerman . . . . 

1 

5. 84 

Hammerman . 

1 

6.  08 

Hammerman . . . 

Inspector  of  police . 

1 

1 

6.  33 
9. 00 

Iron  fitter. ..t . 

1 

7.06 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Joiners . 

2 

$7.  30 
7. 30 

Machine  maker . . 

1 

Mechanic . . 

1' 

4.87 

Mechanic . . 

1 

7. 06 

Mechanic . . 

1 

7. 30 

Mold  era . . . . . . 

2 

7.30 

Painter . . . 

1 

7.54 

Plasterer . 

] 

7. 30 

Porters . . 

2 

4.87 

Porter . . 

1 

5. 60 

Porters . . . 

2 

6. 08 

Postman . 

1 

7. 30 

Postman . . . 

1 

9.73 

Printers . 

3 

7.30 

Roadmaker . . . . 

1 

6.81 

Sailmaker . . . . 

1 

6.  81 

Salesman . . 

1 

4.87 

Salesmen . . . . . 

6 

7. 30 

Saleswoman . . . 

1 

3. 65 

Seaman . . . 

1 

5.35 

Shawl  fringer _ _ _ 

1 

3.  05 

Shoemaker _ _ ....... 

1 

6. 08 

Shoemaker . . . . 

1 

6. 57 

Shopman _ _ ..... 

1 

6. 33 

Shop  woman _ 

1 

3.41 

Rli  op  worn  an _ .............. 

1 

4. 87 

Silversmiths _ _ ; . 

2 

7.  30 

Slater . . 

1 

7.30 

Spirit  salesman . . 

1 

9. 73 

Stone  mason ................... 

1 

6.81 

Storekeeper _ ............. 

1 

5.  84 

Storekeeper _ .......... 

1 

7. 30 

Storekeeper _ ..... 

1 

7.  79 

Tailor.  . . .......... 

1 

6. 33 

Tailor . . . 

Tinsmith _ ...... _ _ _ ..... 

1 

1 

7. 30 
7. 30 

Tool  makers _ _ _ _ _ 

2 

7.  30 

Tool  maker. ........ _ _ _ 

1 

7.  79 

Traveler . . . . ..... 

1 

7. 30 

Van  man . . 

1 

6. 08 

Warehouseman . . 

1 

6.  08 

Warehouseman . . . 

] 

6.57 

W arehouse woman  . . 

1 

3.65 

CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


271 


At  the  time  the  Saltmarket  tenements  were  visited,  the  buildings, 
designed  for  a  lower  stratum  of  working  people,  were  not  fully  opened 
to  habitation. 

It  is  considered  that  the  rentals  absorb  from  12£  to  16  per  cent  of  the 
earnings  of  heads  of  families.  Subletting  or  receiving  boarders  is  not 
permitted.  Each  one  of  the  buildings  is  in  the  care  of  a  superintend¬ 
ent,  who  is  responsible  for  the  renting  of  the  tenements;  he  also  selects 
tenants  and  keeps  order. 

The  occupants  of  these  tenements  are  conveniently  situated  in  refer¬ 
ence  to  their  work.  Of  heads  of  families,  40  are  within  five  minutes’ 
walk  therefrom,  30  within  ten  minutes’  walk,  22  within  fifteen  minutes’ 
walk,  11  within  twenty  minutes’  walk,  and  3  within  half  an  hour’s  walk. 
Three  of  the  remainder  are  situated  from  one  to  two  miles,  and  have  to 
pay  2d.  (4  cents)  for  a  round  trip  bystreet  car.  Eight  of  them  are  situ¬ 
ated  within  five  miles  of  their  work,  and  go  to  and  fro  on  trains,  the 
round  trip  costing  4d.  (8  cents).  — 

The  corporation  has  not  erected  any  accessories,  such  as  baths,  libra¬ 
ries,  reading  rooms,  parlors,  or  halls  for  social  or  musical  meetings. 

ROSEMOUNT  ASSOCIATION  FOR  PROVIDING  DWELLINGS  FOR 
WORKING  PEOPLE,  EDINBURGH. 

A  block  of  brick  buildings  containing  12  two-room  and  84  three-room 
tenements,  erected  around  a  quadrangular  open  court,  was  constructed 
in  Edinburgh  in  1875.  A  little  more  than  half  of  the  space  has  been 
built  upon.  The  remainder  is  paved  with  granolithic  or  left  as  a  grass 
plot.  The  size  of  this  interior  court  is  about  150  feet  by  120  feet.  The 
buildings  are  three  stories  high.  Stairways  are  situated  at  each  corner 
of  the  buildings,  and  through  these  access  is  had  to  the  different  tene¬ 
ments  from  balconies  running  along  the  exterior  of  the  buildings  on  the 
court  side.  Stairways  are  of  stone  and  the  roofing  is  of  slate.  The 
internal  partitions  are  of  brick,  and  party  walls  are  carried  above  the 
roof.  There  is  no  cellar  to  the  buildings.  Through  ventilation  is  pro¬ 
vided  for,  and  the  apartments  are  heated  from  open  fireplaces.  Each 
family  has  a  private  water-closet  and  sink  inside  the  building.  The 
drains  consist  of  G  and  9  inch  vitrified  pipes  jointed  in  Portland  cement. 
Similar  pipes  are  built  into  the  internal  walls  of  the  water-closet  apart¬ 
ments  and  terminate  above  the  roof.  The  drains  are  trapped  at  the 
outlet.  There  is  a  laundry  situated  by  the  stairway  on  each  story. 
The  court  is  used  as  a  drying  ground.  A  cooking  range  has  been  placed 
in  each  kitchen,  with  a  boiler  for  heating  water.  A  dust  shoot  receives 
the  sweepings  and  ashes  Ceilings  are  9  feet  7  inches  high.  The 
kitchens  in  two-room  tenements  are  14  feet  by  12  feet  and  the  bedrooms 
10  feet  by  12  feet  10  inches.  The  largest  size  three-room  tenements 
contain  kitchens  14  feet  by  12  feet  and  bedrooms  10  feet  by  10  feet  and 
10  feet  by  5  feet,  respectively.  In  the  smallest  three-room  tenements 
the  kitchens  are  12  feet  by  12  feet  and  the  bedrooms  7  feet  by  12  feet. 


272  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

Each  tenement  contains  a  recess,  additional,  varying  from  4  feet  by  5 
feet  to  3  feet  6  inches  by  7  feet,  and  a  vestibule. 

The  buildings  are  always  full.  Ninety-six  families  can  be  accommo¬ 
dated,  and  the  latest  return  revealed  a  population  of  403  persons.  The 
cubic  air  space  per  person  is,  on  the  average,  757  feet.  The  total  cost 
of  the  buildings,  ready  for  habitation,  was  £12,500  ($00,831.25).  The 
rental  of  two-room  tenements  is  3s.  3d.  (79  cents)  per  week.  Three- 
room  tenements  rent  for  3s.  Gd.  to  4s.  7d.  (85  cents  to  $1.12)  per  week, 
according  to  size.  In  Scotland  it  is  customary  for  the  tenant  to  pay 
local  taxes  known  as  rates,  so  that  these  must  be  added  in  order  to 
compare  rentals  with  those  in  other  countries. 

The  company  paid  5  per  cent  dividend  annually  up  to  1883,  since 
which  time  they  have  paid  0  per  cent.  In  addition,  a  reserve,  which  up 
to  1893  amounted  to  £3,575  ($17,397.74),  has  been  accumulated,  while 
the  buildings  have  been  kept  in  a  thoroughly  efficient  state  of  repair.  If 
this  were  applied  to  reduction  of  capital  outlay  the  latter  amount  in  1893 
would  have  been  £8,925  ($43,433.51).  Failure  on  the  part  of  tenants 
to  pay  rent  is  almost  unknown.  Rents  are  paid  quarterly  in  advance. 
They  are  called  for  by  an  agent  of  the  company.  Subletting  is  not  per¬ 
mitted,  but  boarders  may  be  received  with  the  company’s  consent.  The 
occupants  of  the  house  are  mainly  joiners,  plasterers,  stone  masons, 
and  general  mechanics.  They  are  in  receipt  of  wages  varying  probably 
from  £1  to  £1  5s.  ($4.87  to  $0.08)  per  week,  counting  the  whole  year. 
The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  3G  A  and  3G  B)  show  a  sectional 
elevation  and  the  general  arrangement  of  the  Rosemount  buildings. 

EDINBURGH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  DWELLINGS 

OF  THE  POOR,  EDINBURGH. 

This  organization  has  undertaken  the  task  of  housing,  on  a  commer¬ 
cial  basis,  the  poorer  elements  among  working  people.  Upon  a  lot 
irregular  in  shape,  having  95  feet  front  and  109  feet  depth,  tenement 
buildings  containing  four  stories  in  the  front  and  two  stories  in  the  rear 
have  been  constructed.  About  58  per  cent  of  the  total  ground  has  been 
built  upon.  It  is  partly  paved  and  partly  a  grass  plot,  and  is  used  for 
recreation  purposes  and  drying  clothes.  The  front  buildings  are  of 
stone,  those  in  the  rear  are  of  brick.  They  are  very  strongly  con¬ 
structed  and  as  nearly  as  possible  are  fireproof.  Roofing  is  of  timber 
covered  with  slate  and  zinc.  Stairways  are  set  in  brick  walls,  and  the 
steps  are  of  stone  supported  by  ironwork.  The  staircase  is  open  on  two 
sides  and  roofed  over.  The  landings  are  in  the  form  of  open  balconies, 
from  which  the  dwellings  are  entered.  All  interior  partitions  are  built 
of  brick.  Access  to  the  shops  and  tenements  on  the  first  floor  is  from 
the  public  street.  There  are  no  special  arrangements  to  prevent  min¬ 
gling  of  occupants  upon  stairways  and  landings.  Every  room  commu¬ 
nicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  Each 
room  has  a  cased  window  with  both  sashes  made  to  open,  and  an  open 


nnnri  a., a. si. 


ROSEMOUNT  BUILDINGS,  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  36  a. 


ROSEMOUNT  BUILDINGS,  EDINBURGH.  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  36  b. 


BLOCK  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EDINBURGH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  POOR,  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND. 


BLOCK  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EDINBURGH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  POOR,  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  37  b. 


BLOCK  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EDINBURGH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE 

POOR,  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND.  a' 


Plan  No.  37  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS 


273 


fireplace,  which  materially  assist  in  good  ventilation.  For  the  common 
lobbies  there  is  a  ventilating  tube  taken  from  the  outer  wall  opposite 
the  entrance  doorways.  On  each  story  there  are  seven  water-closets, 
three  at  the  stairs  and  four  in  the  tower.  Every  two-room  tenement 
has  a  water-closet.  Two  of  the  single-room  tenements  have  one  closet 
in  common.  A  census  of  occupants  shows  that  there  are  about  six 
persons  on  the  average  per  water-closet.  Closets  are  furnished  with 
3-gallon  flushes.  The  drains  consist  of  4,  5,  and  0  inch  spigot  and 
faucet,  salt-glazed  fire  clay  pipes  jointed  with  cement  and  trapped  at 
the  outlet  before  entering  the  sewer  by  means  of  a  ventilating  trap 
placed  in  a  manhole,  and  rendered  easily  accessible  by  a  portable  cover. 
Access  chambers  are  situated  at  suitable  places  throughout  the  whole 
drainage  system.  Disconnection  of  the  waste  pipes,  sinks,  washing 
tubs,  baths,  and  rain-water  pipes  is  effected  by  ventilating  traps. 
Soil  pipes  and  waste  pipes  from  sinks,  etc.,  are  continued  several  feet 
above  the  roof.  Both  of  these  classes  of  pipes  are  of  cast  iron  and  are 
fixed  outside  of  the  building.  Each  tenement  is  provided  with  a  sink 
and  water  tap.  Laundries  and  baths  are  fitted  up  on  the  respective 
floors.  Open  fireplaces  furnish  the  heating,  and  gas  is  employed  for 
lighting.  Washing  is  done  in  the  laundries,  not  in  the  lodgings.  Dry¬ 
ing  poles  have  been  fixed  in  the  paved  court.  During  rainy  weather  the 
attic  serves  as  a  drying  room.  A  wooden  box  in  the  window  recess 
furnishes  fuel  storage.  Dust  shoots  on  each  floor  receive  the  dry  gar¬ 
bage.  In  the  back  buildings  pantries  have  been  erected  off  the  living 
room,  in  which  there  are  a  sink,  dresser,  etc.  In  the  front  buildings  a 
large  clothespress  has  been  prepared  for  each  tenement.  Most  of  the 
siugle-room  tenements  have  sculleries  attached,  with  sink  and  cupboard 
for  dishes.  Bedrooms  and  living  rooms  are  papered,  and  the  latter 
•are  varnished  4  feet  up  from  the  floor.  A  picture  molding  extends  all 
around  the  room. 

The  exterior  and  interior  characteristics  of  the  buildings  are  best  seen 
from  the  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  37  A,  37  B,  and  37  C). 

The  buildings  contain  16  one-room  and  17  two-room  tenements.  The 
average  air  space  in  the  former  is  2,210  cubic  feet,  in  the  latter  3,040 
cubic  feet.  Ceilings  are  10  feet  high.  Thirty-three  families,  comprising 
141  persons,  are  in  occupancy.  The  rental  charged  for  an  ordinary  sized 
single-room  tenement  is  £5  7s.  ($2G.04)  per  year.  The  largest  sized 
tenements  of  this  class  rent  for  £6  14s.  ($32.61)  per  annum.  Two-room 
tenements  rent  for  from  £9  to  £9  9s.  ($43.80  to  $45.99)  per  year.  Ten¬ 
ants  pay  all  rates  except  the  water  rate. 

The  cost  of  the  land  upon  which  the  buildings  were  erected  was 
£800  ($3,893.20).  The  buildings,  ready  for  habitation,  cost  £5,424 
18s.  6d.  ($26,400.40).  The  enterprise  is  a  joint  stock  limited  liability 
company.  Two  per  cent  was  paid  the  first  year,  3  per  cent  the  second, 
4  per  cent  the  third,  and  3|  per  cent  during  the  fiscal  year  1893.  The 
average  annual  dividend  so  far  has  been  3^  per  cent.  This  is  a  fair 
H.  Ex.  354 - 18 


274  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


return,  considering  that  tenants  belong  to  the  very  poor  class,  a  great 
many  of  them  being  casual  laborers.  A  month’s  rent  is  demanded  in 
advance;  after  that  payments  are  made  weekly,  monthly,  or  quarterly, 
at  the  option  of  tenants.  Lady  rent  collectors  look  after  the  property 
and  are  allowed  a  commission  of  5  per  cent.  They  do  not  depend  upon 
this  source  of  income  for  their  livelihood,  but  generally  spend  their 
commissions  upon  entertainments  for  the  tenants. 

WELL  COURT  MODEL  TENEMENTS,  EDINBURGH. 

This  property  belongs  to  J.  R.  Findlay,  proprietor  of  the  Edinburgh 
Scotsman.  The  building  is  artistically  constructed  of  brick,  and  has 
accommodation  for  fifty  families.  The  total  cost,  including  site,  was 
£11,500  ($55,964.75).  Rents  range  from  £7  to  £11  9s.  ($34.07  to  $55.72) 
per  annum,  making  a  rent  roll  of  £490  15s.  ($2,388.23).  A  little  over  3 
per  cent  is  the  net  income  from  this  property.  It  is  intended  for  the 
better  class  of  working  people.  The  tenements  are  of  various  sizes, 
some  having  a  living  room  with  two  bedrooms,  others  a  living  room 
with  a  single  bedroom.  The  larger  apartments  have  separate  sculleries 
with  washtub  and  sink,  the  smaller  ones  have  sinks  only.  Each  tene¬ 
ment  has  a  water-closet.  The  tenements  are  painted,  papered,  and 
fitted  with  grates  and  gas  fittings.  The  drains  and  sanitary  arrange¬ 
ments  are  of  the  most  complete  description. 

FRANCE. 

THE  FAMILISTERE,  GUISE. 

At  Guise,  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  is  situated  the  Familistbre, 
founded  by  Jean  Baptiste  Andre  Godin.  The  foundation  for  the  first 
building  was  laid  in  April,  1859.  In  the  Familistere  are  now  compre¬ 
hended  seven  groups  of  constructions,  three  of  which  are  groups  of 
block  dwellings.  The  first  group  erected,  composed  of  a  central  build¬ 
ing  and  two  wings,  and  a  plan  of  the  ground  floor  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  sketches  (plans  Nos.  38  A  and  38  B). 

The  left  wing  of  the  first  group  of  block  dwellings  was  constructed 
from  1859  to  1801,  the  central  portion  from  1802  to  1805,  and  the  right 
wing  from  1877  to  1880.  The  second  group  of  block  dwelliugs  was  con¬ 
structed  from  1882  to  1883,  and  the  third  from  1883  to  1885.  In  the 
remaining  groups  of  buildings  are  comprised  prodirce  warehouses,  a 
nursery,  a  theater  and  two  schools,  a  public  laundry  and  baths.  The 
first  group  contains  in  all  299  tenements,  of  which  12  are  one-room,  201 
two-room,  75  three-room,  1  four  room,  6  five-room,  3  seven-room,  and 
1  eight-room  tenements.  The  second  group  contains  19  tenements, 
chiefly  of  two  and  three  rooms.  The  third  group  contains  11  one-room, 
79  two-room,  56  three-room,  and  1  five-room  tenements.  The  three 
groups  of  block  dwellings  contain  altogether  1,091  rooms.  The  spaces 


THE  FAMILIST^RE,  GUISE,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  38  a. 


THE  FAMILISTERE,  GUISE,  FRANCE. 
Plan  No.  38  b. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


275 


that  would  have  been  occupied  by  fifteen  rooms  within  these  buildings 
are  taken  up  with  a  grocery  store,  a  clothing  store,  library,  drug  store, 
printing  office,  etc.  The  first  group  is  composed  of  three  squares,  each 
inclosing  interior  courts,  paved  and  covered  with  glass.  The  theater 
and  schools  are  opposite  the  center  of  this  group,  facing  the  open  space 
between  the  two  wings.  The  nursery  and  infant  schools  are  on  the 
other  side  of  the  central  wing,  and  form  a  sort  of  extension  to  it.  There 
are  other  annexes  near  the  left  wing  and  close  to  the  theater  and  school 
building.  The  space  between  the  first  group  of  block  dwellings  and 
the  theater  is  laid  out  in  grass  plots.  The  second  and  third  groups  of 
block  dwellings  are  situated  not  far  from  the  first.  All  of  the  tene¬ 
ments  have  balconies  on  the  court  side,  to  which  the  doors  open,  this 
being  the  only  means  by  which  all  but  the  corner  ones  are  reached. 
The  stairways  are  built  in  the  interior  and  lead  to  the  exterior  balco¬ 
nies.  They  are  placed  in  the  corners.  Each  story  contains  separate 
sets  of  privies  for  men  and  women.  Privies  are  not  provided  in  suffi¬ 
cient  numbers,  only  90  being  available  for  a  population  of  about  1,800. 
Artesian  wells  furnish  the  water,  which  rises  nearly  to  the  height  of 
itlie  roofs  and  is  distributed  to  reservoirs,  whence  it  descends  in  pipes 
having  a  spigot  on  each  floor.  The  reservoirs  hold  from  8,000  to 
|8,700  liters  (2,113  to  2,298  gallons).  Good  provision  has  been  made  for 
(sewerage,  and  the  privy  pits  are  emptied  at  least  once  a  year.  Liquid 
'sewage  runs  off  into  the  river  which  passes  the  grounds.  Twenty 
women  are  employed  to  sweep  and  keep  in  order  the  courts,  staircases, 
balconies,  and  privies.  These  services  cost  annually  7,530  francs 
($1,453.29).  Sweeping  is  done  every  morning  and  a  general  cleansing 
lakes  place  every  week,  except  in  the  privies,  which  are  thoroughly 
flushed  seven  times  a  day.  The  total  cost  of  construction  for  the  three 
groups  of  dwellings  and  the  annexes  (theater,  schools,  and  laundry) 
was  2,100,218.60  francs  ($405,342.19),  or  an  average  cost  of  140.54  francs 
$27.12)  per  square  meter.  Iteutals  are  paid  by  the  month,  are  based 
i  upon  superficial  area,  and  vary  according  to  the  story  and  the  exposure, 
he  southern  and  western  commanding  higher  rates  than  the  eastern 
ind  northern. 

In  the  left  wing  rents  vary  from  27.50  centimes  to  35.20  centimes 
5.3075  cents  to  6.7936  cents)  per  square  meter;  in  the  central  building 
he  rents  are  the  same  as  in  the  left  wing;  in  the  right  wing  rents  vary 
rom  22.50  centimes  to  28.80  centimes  (4.3425  cents  to  5.5584  cents); 
n  the  second  group  the  rents  vary  from  29.80  centimes  to  35.80  centimes 
5.7514  cents  to  6.9094  cents);  in  the  third  group  from  27  centimes  to 
56  centimes  (5.2110  cents  to  6.9480  cents).  The  total  rent  roll  exceeds 
107,000  francs  ($20,651)  annually.  All  workingmen  desiring  to  enter 
he  buildings  must  apply  to  the  general  managers.  The  application  is 
hen  examined  by  the  council  of  the  Familistere,  and  if  approved  must 
,»e  ratified  by  the  managing  council. 


276  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY  OF  PARIS. 

This  organization  (Societe  Philanthropique  de  Paris)  concerns  itself 
with  philanthropic  work  of  various  kinds.  It  dates  back  to  1780,  in 
which  year  it  was  founded.  In  1839  it  was  recognized  by  the  French 
government  to  be  of  public  utility.  Part  of  its  energies  are  now 
devoted  to  the  provision  of  houses  for  working  people,  and  this  branch  i 
of  effort  is  directed  by  M.  Georges  Picot.  Through  the  generosity  of 
a  Parisian  banker,  M.  Michel  Heine,  who  in  1888  made  a  donation  of 
750,000  francs  ($144,750),  it  was  enabled  to  commence  this  work.  He 
confided  the  administration  of  this  trust  to  the  Philanthropic  Society, 
stipulating  simply  that  the  example  of  the  Peabody  donation  fund 
should  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible.  The  profits  accruing  from  j 
fiscal  operations  were  to  go  solely  to  increase  the  capital  fund.  In 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  trust  three  tenement  buildings  have 
been  erected  in  different  parts  of  Paris,  containing  in  all  137  separate  i  - 
tenements,  of  which  40  contain  two  rooms  and  97  three  rooms  each,  j 
The  rentals  vary  from  260  to  312  francs  ($50.18  to  $60.22)  for  two-room 
tenements  and  from  260  to  390  francs  ($50.18  to  $75.27)  for  three-room 
tenements  annually.  The  first  building  was  opened  for  habitation  in  j 
December,  1888.  The  estimated  value  of  the  model  tenement  property 
is  now  750,431.95  francs  ($144,833.37).  Three  and  nineteen  one-hun¬ 
dredths  per  cent  represents  the  profit  for  the  last  fiscal  year  for  which 
returns  are  available.  The  total  rent  roll  was  38,250  francs  ($7,382.25).  j 
The  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  lodgings  was  739.25  francs  ($142.68).  ! 
The  list  of  occupations  of  heads  of  families  for  1891  showed  that  12! 
were  railway  employees,  19  wood  workers,  such  as  carpenters,  cabinet¬ 
makers,  wheelwrights,  box  makers,  and  coopers,  17  iron  workers, 
including  machinists,  brass  and  copper  smiths,  3  electrical  workers,  5 
masons  and  painters,  6  employees  of  sugar  refineries,  4  gas  workers,  2 
policemen,  7  postal  and  telegraph  clerks,  2  government  employees,  12 
clerks  in  business  houses,  2  teachers,  8  tailors  and  seamstresses,  3  j 
licensed  messengers,  3  housekeepers,  10  laborers,  and  21  of  various  L 
vocations.  The  earnings  of  the  heads  of  these  families  vary  from  3.50 
francs  to  6  francs  (68  cents  to  $1.16)  per  day.  The  report  of  the  Philan-  [ 
thropic  Society  for  1890  estimates  12£  to  14£  per  cent  as  the  apparent  ( 
proportion  of  earnings  paid  for  rent  among  inhabitants  of  these  model!  i 
buildings. 

The  model  tenement  building  situated  in  the  Boulevard  de  Grenelle  •. 
occupies  a  lot  irregular  in  shape  and  covers  a  little  over  one-half  of  its 
area.  It  is  of  brick  with  stone  trimmings,  and  eight  stories  high,  h 
counting  the  ground  floor.  The  building  contains  9  two-room  and  37 
three-room  tenements,  varying  in  size.  The  height  of  ceilings  on  the 
ground  floor  is  9  feet  11  inches  and  in  the  remaining  stories  8  feet  6 
inches.  Gas  has  been  put  in  each  apartment.  Each  tenement  has  one 
or  more  fireplaces,  a  cooking  range  with  boiler,  a  sink,  a  receptacle 


Ground  floor. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY  OF  PARIS,  PARIS,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  39  b. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  PHILANTHROPIC  SOCIETY  OF  PARIS,  PARIS,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  39  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


277 


for  water,  dust  shoots  emptyiug  into  a  receptacle  on  wheels  placed 
in  the  court,  gas  jets,  and,  where  desired  by  tenants,  the  free  use  of  a 
gas  stove.  All  the  woodwork,  which  is  of  oak,  is  finished  in  hard  oil, 
and  the  walls  are  papered.  Externally  the  brick  walls  are  trimmed 
with  cut  stone  cornices  and  supports.  Cuts  showing  the  front  eleva¬ 
tion  and  the  plans  of  the  interior  arrangements  are  given  (plans  Nos. 
39  A,  39  B,  and  39  C). 

The  houses  are  not  built  so  as  to  secure  through  ventilation.  Sew¬ 
erage  has  been  well  attended  to.  There  is  a  court  in  the  rear  of  the 
building  which  is  unpaved  but  planted  with  trees.  It  is  covered  with 
sand  and  is  largely  used  as  a  playground  for  children. 

HEALTHY  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MARSEILLES. 

The  Soci6t6  des  Habitations  Salubres  et  Bon  Marche  de  Marseille 
was  organized  May  23,  1889.  The  capital  stock  was  fixed  at  250,000 
francs  ($48,250),  and  was  subscribed  in  500  shares  at  500  francs  ($90.50) 
each.  All  the  stock  was  taken  up  by  ninety-three  persons.  In  the 
meantime  a  subsidy  of  10,000  francs  ($1,930)  was  received  from  the 
municipal  corporation  May  7, 1889. 

The  first  tract  of  land  was  purchased  on  August  2, 1889,  and  the  con¬ 
struction  of  a  building  was  begun  on  August  30,  1889.  It  was  ready 
for  habitation  on  May  13, 1890.  This  building  is  known  as  the  Groupe 
des  Catalans,  and  contains  forty  dwellings. 

A  second  site  was  purchased  on  December  27, 1889,  and  a  building 
erected  on  it,  which  was  ready  for  habitation  September  9, 1890.  This 
group  is  known  as  Quartier  Jules  Simon,  and  contains  twenty-six 
dwellings. 

On  June  24,  1892,  the  capital  stock  was  increased  to  350,000  francs 
($67,550).  The  new  stock — 200  shares  at  500  francs  ($96.50) — was  all 
taken  up  by  the  Compagnie  des  Docks  et  Entrepots  de  Marseille,  with 
the  understanding  that  a  tenement  building  should  be  constructed  in 
the  vicinity  of  their  business,  and  that  in  the  selection  of  tenants  for 
the  new  building  preference  should  be  given  to  the  employees  of  the 
company. 

The  construction  of  this  building  was  commenced  on  August  27, 1892, 
and  it  was  expected  to  be  completed  by  the  end  of  February,  1893. 
This  building  is  known  as  the  Groupe  de  la  Madrague,  and  contains 
thirty-six  dwellings. 

The  first  group  erected  is  situated  in  rue  Saint-Lambert.  The  area  of 
the  lot  is  9,117  square  feet  and  of  the  building  6,394  square  feet.  Sev¬ 
enty  per  cent  of  the  lot  has  therefore  been  built  upon.  The  open  space 
is  in  the  form  of  courts.  The  building  is  four  stories  high.  The  thick¬ 
ness  of  exterior  walls  is  14  inches.  Cellars  have  not  been  provided,  but 
there  is  free  circulation  of  air  under  the  first  floor.  There  are  three 
sets  of  staircases  for  the  three  sections  of  the  building.  Two  are 
used  by  four  families  and  one  by  two  families  on  each  floor.  The  stair- 


278  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


ways  in  two  of  the  sections  are  reached  from  the  front  by  means  of 
a  passageway  4  feet  11  inches  wide,  and  also  directly  from  the  rear 
entrance.  These  staircases  are  6  feet  7  inches  wide  and  are  lighted  by 
windows  in  the  rear  on  each  floor.  In  the  third  section  the  staircase 
is  reached  by  a  passageway  11  feet  10  inches  in  width,  extending  from 
the  street  to  the  rear  court.  This  stairway  is  lighted  only  by  windows 
opening  to  a  small  interior  light  shaft.  Each  family  has  its  own  pri¬ 
vate  hallway,  2  feet  9  inches  wide,  extending  from  the  staircase  to  the 
end  of  the  suite.  Each  room  opens  to  this  hallway.  By  this  arrange¬ 
ment  strict  privacy  is  maintained,  although,  perhaps,  somewhat  at 
the  expense  of  free  circulation  of  air.  Each  tenement  is  entirely  self- 
contained.  Every  room  communicates  directly  with  the  open  air,  but 
there  is  no  through  ventilation  from  front  to  rear  except  by  means 
of  the  staircases.  The  walls  which  separate  the  private  hallways 
also  shut  off  through  circulation.  -The  water-closets  and  private 
hallways  have  windows  opening  to  airshafts  midway  between  the 
street  and  court.  The  central  airshaft  is  13  feet  1  inch  by  6  feet  7 
inches,  that  at  one  end  5  feet  1  inch  by  6  feet  7  inches,  and  that  near 
the  other  end  about  3  feet  11  inches  square.  For  each  tenement  there 
is  allowed  128  gallons  of  water  per  day.  Good  plumbing  arrangements 
exist  throughout;  especially  is  there  excellent  water-closet  flushing. 
A  clothespress  is  provided  in  each  of  the  four-room  and  three-room 
tenements,  but  aside  from  this  the  interior  conveniences  are  not  numer¬ 
ous.  Sinks  are  placed  in  all  the  kitchens,  and  a  soup  kettle  which 
takes  the  place  of  a  cooking  range.  This  group  of  dwellings  contains 
2  two-room  tenements,  14  three-room  tenements,  and  24  four-room 
tenements. 

Thirty-seven  families,  comprising  163  persons,  dwelt  in  this  group 
of  model  dwellings  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  September  30,  1891. 
The  rents  vary  from  140  francs  to  280  francs  ($27.02  to  $54.04)  per 
tenement  per  year,  except  in  the  case  of  2  four-room  tenements,  in 
each  of  which  one  room  is  fitted  up  as  a  store.  The  rentals  of  these 
are  290  francs  and  340  francs  ($55.97  and  $65.62)  annually.  The  aver¬ 
age  rental  for  tenements  is  about  234  francs  ($45.16)  per  year.  The 
total  sum  received  for  rent  for  the  year  ending  September  30,  1892, 
was  8,764.40  francs  ($1,691.53).  The  original  cost  of  the  lot  was 
4,746.65  francs  ($916.10),  of  the  building  131,031.45  francs  ($25,289.07). 

The  annual  dividend  paid  on  the  original  share  capital  since  the 
enterprise  was  founded  is  3£  per  cent.  No  capital  has  been  borrowed. 
The  total  estimated  value  of  the  three  properties  on  September  30, 
1892,  was  226,019.50  francs  ($43,621.76).  The  total  sum  received  from 
rent  during  the  fiscal  year  was  13,301  40  francs  ($2,567.17).  This  is 
for  two  groups  valued  at  200,572  francs  ($38,710.40),  the  third  group 
not  having  yielded  any  revenue  up  to  that  time.  One-twentieth  of  the 
annual  net  profits  is  set  aside  for  the  legal  reserve.  One-twentieth  of 
the  original  construction  cost  and  one-twentietli  of  the  value  of  fixtures 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


279 


are  also  annually  set  aside  before  dividends  are  paid.  All  the  lodgings 
were  occupied  during  the  last  fiscal  year  for  which  returns  were  avail¬ 
able.  Rents  are  paid  monthly  in  the  smaller  group  of  dwellings  and 
quarterly  in  the  larger. 

The  occupations  of  the  tenants  of  the  first  two  groups  of  dwellings 
are  as  follows : 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  TENANTS  OF  HEALTHY  DWELLINGS  COMPANY.  MARSEILLES. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Baker . . . 

1 

6 

Brak  email . 

1 

Laborers,  sla  lighter- 

Plumber . 

Chambermaid . . 

I 

house  . 

2 

Porters . 

Charger . . 

1 

Laundry  women . 

2 

Seamen . 

Clerks . . . . . 

5 

I,  eat  her  dresser . 

1 

Seamstresses . . . 

1 

4 

Conductors,  street  car. . . 

2 

Mason . . 

i 

1 

Mattress  maker . . 

i 

Stonecutter . 

4 

i 

Tailors . . 

Employee,  car  shops  .... 

1 

Milliner . . 

i 

Varnisber. . . . 

1 

i 

Wheelwright . 

1 

Painter,  house . 

i 

Wood  carver . 

Green  grocer . 

1 

TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  ROUEN. 

The  group  of  model  tenements  belonging  to  the  Soci6t6  Anonyme 
Immobiliere  des  Petits  Logements  selected  for  description  is  the  Alsace- 
Lorraine.  The  area  of  the  lot  is  16,489  square  feet,  of  which  9,G88  feet, 
or  about  59  per  cent,  is  covered  with  buildings.  The  open  space  is  in 
the  form  of  a  court  at  the  rear.  Paved  sidewalks  surround  the  court. 
The  interior  is  partly  concreted  and  partly  laid  out  as  a  garden  with 
gravel  walks.  It  is  given  up  entirely  to  the  free  use  of  occupants,' and 
a  portion  of  it  has  been  covered  so  as  to  serve  asa  recreation  ground  for 
children  in  rainy  weather.  The  buildings  are  of  brick  with  stone  trim¬ 
mings  and  five  stories  high.  The  staircases  are  fireproof,  and  floors  of 
landings  are  of  cement  laid  on  concrete.  The  rafters  are  of  iron  fitted 
into  the  masonry.  Doors  in  the  attic  connect  the  different  parts  of  the 
buildings,  so  that  escape  in  case  of  fire  is  effectually  guaranteed.  The 
cellar  is  paved  with  cement  laid  on  concrete.  There  are  three  tene¬ 
ments  to  each  landing,  except  in  the  corner  buildings,  where  there  are 
four.  Stairways  have  been  placed  in  an  extension  to  the  buildings. 
But  one  door  from  a  family  lodging  opens  directly  to  the  stair  or  hall¬ 
way.  Every  room  has  direct  communication  with  the  external  air,  and 
there  is  through  circulation  from  front  to  rear  in  all  the  tenements. 
In  the  three-room  tenements  the  currents  of  air  may  pass  directly 
through  the  room,  while  in  the  others  the  ventilation  is  by  means  of 
outside  windows  on  the  oue  side  and  the  staircase  window  on  the  other. 
The  water-closets,  one  of  which  is  provided  for  each  family,  are  sit¬ 
uated  in  the  rear  extension  beside  the  stairway.  They  are  thus  entirely 
separated  from  the  main  building.  The  refuse  from  the  closets  is  car¬ 
ried  directly  to  the  city  seweri  by  means  of  trapped  pipes.  The  courts 


280  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

and  stairways  are  lighted  with  gas;  hallways  are  not  heated.  The 
water  is  outside,  but  in  close  proximity  to  the  dwellings.  No  cooking 
range  has  been  provided  by  the  company.  A  space  for  fuel  storage  is 
set  apart  in  both  cellar  and  garrets.  Dust  shoots  carry  off  the  ashes 
and  sweepings  from  each  story.  A  pantry  has  been  placed  under  the 
window  casement  and  a  buffet  in  the  kitchen.  There  is  a  clothespress 
in  each  tenement.  There  is  a  fireplace  in  at  least  one  bedroom  of  the 
tenement.  Lower  stories  have  window  shutters,  but  the  upper  ones  are 
not  so  provided.  Gas  jets  have  been  placed  in  every  tenement.  There 
is  a  small  iron  anvil  on  each  floor,  upon  which  wood  is  chopped.  The 
door  casings  are  painted  and  walls  papered.  The  window  casings 
have  been  made  broad,  with  the  idea  of  furnishing  space  for  potted 
plants.  Sketches  of  the  front  and  corner  of  interior  court  of  this  group 
of  buildings  are  shown,  together  with  a  plan  of  the  second  floor  (plans 
Nos.  40  A  and  40  B). 

The  buildings  contain  16  one-room  tenements,  27  of  two  rooms,  37  of 
three  rooms,  4  of  four  rooms,  and  15  stores.  Dimensions  are  given  on 
the  plan.  But  one  death  occurred  in  these  buildings  during  the  year 
1891.  There  were  eight  births.  In  1888  statistics  showing  the  relative 
mortality  and  birth  rate  among  inhabitants  of  these  buildings,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  rate  for  the  city,  were  prepared.  The  births  were  32  per 
1,000  for  the  buildings  and  27  per  1,000  for  the  city;  the  deaths  8  per 
1,000  for  the  buildings  and  34  per  1,000  for  the  city.  The  buildings  were 
opened  for  habitation  in  1886.  The  original  cost  of  the  laud  was  59,200.10 
francs  ($11,425.62);  of  the  buildings,  393,185.13  francs  ($75,884.73). 
Incidental  expenses  amounting  to  10,991.83  francs  ($2,121.42)  must  be 
added,  so  that  the  total  cost  of  the  property  was  463,377.06  francs 
($89,431.77).  Single-room  tenements  rent  for  87  francs  ($16.79)  per 
annum  in  the  fifth  story,  99.30  francs  ($19.16)  in  the  fourth  story,  108 
francs  ($20.84)  in  the  third  story,  and  112.80  francs  ($21.77)  in  the  sec¬ 
ond  story.  Two-room  tenements  rent  for  206.80  francs  ($39.91)  per 
annum  on  the  ground  floor,  258.20  francs  ($49.83)  in  the  second  story,  241 
francs  ($46.51)  in  the  third  story,  213.80  francs  ($41.26)  in  the  fourth 
story,  and  193  francs  ($37.25)  in  the  fifth  story.  Three-room  tenements 
reut  for  200.40  francs  ($38.68)  on  the  ground  floor,  344.93  francs  ($66.57) 
in  the  second  story,  332.89  francs  ($64.25)  in  the  third  story,  278  francs 
($53.65)  in  the  fourth  story,  and  275.20  francs  ($53.11)  in  the  fifth  story. 
Four-room  tenements  rent  for  450  francs  ($86.85)  in  the  second  story, 
430.80  francs  ($83.14)  in  the  third  story,  400.80  francs  ($77.35)  in  the 
fourth  story,  and  380.40  francs  ($73.42)  in  the  fifth  story. 

The  total  amount  of  present  share  capital  is  460,000  francs  ($S8,780). 
The  enterprise  is  a  stock  company,  and  shares  have  been  taken  by 
individual  subscribers.  The  facts  as  to  financial  returns  are  not  avail¬ 
able  since  1890,  but  up  to  that  time  the  company  had  paid  four  annual 
dividends,  averaging  2.11  per  cent.  The  reserve  set  aside  at  that  time 
equaled  2,024.26  francs  ($390.68),  so  that  the  average  annual  net  profit 


GROUP  ALSACE-LORRAINE.,  ROUEN,  FRANCE. 
Plan  No.  40  a. 


•osnH  aoioiA  Bna 


GROUP  ALSACE-LORRAINE,  ROUEN,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  40  B. 


‘i 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


281 


for  those  four  years,  including  the  reserve,  would  amount  to  about  2.2 
per  cent.  Taxes  on  the  property  amounted  in  1890  to  4,004.70  francs 
($888.71).  Eents  are  paid  monthly,  in  advance,  at  the  company’s  office. 
Thirty  days’  notice  is  required  of  intention  to  leave.  About  16J  per 
cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  heads  of  families  in  these  buildings  goes  for 
rent.  Subletting  or  taking  boarders  is  not  permitted.  The  only  rental 
contract  is  a  signed  agreement  on  the  part  of  the  tenant  to  conform  to 
the  rules  and  regulations. 

The  resident  superintendent  is  in  charge.  His  duties  are  to  choose 
tenants,  collect  rents,  and  see  that  property  is  kept  in  good  order.  He 
has  an  assistant,  or  janitor,  who  keeps  the  stairs  and  court  in  proper 
condition.  The  tenants  have  only  their  apartments  to  look  after. 
Laundries  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  tenants,  each  tenant  having 
access  once  a  week.  They  must  supply  their  own  fuel,  but  an  unlimited 
quantity  of  water  is  allowed.  There  are  two  other  accessories  not 
usually  found  in  model  buildings  of  this  class.  The  first  is  a  cider  press, 
which  has  been  placed  in  the  outhouse,  and  which  may  be  utilized  on 
the  payment  of  an  insignificant  fee.  The  second  is  a  room  in  the  out¬ 
house  which  may  be  used  as  a  mortuary,  or  as  an  infirmary  in  case  of 
contagious  diseases. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  buildings  are  conveniently  located  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  their  work,  none  of  them  being  more  than  half  a  mile  distant. 

The  chief  cause  of  meager  financial  returns  has  been  the  number  of 
empty  tenements.  Whether  the  cause  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the 
prejudice  of  Rouennais  workingmen  against  enterprises  of  the  sort 
does  not  appear;  certainly  the  rentals  do  not  call  for  as  high  a  pro¬ 
portion  of  income  as  is  usually  spent  in  house  accommodation. 

CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  LYONS. 

In  1886  Messrs.  Fffiix  and  Lucien  Mangini,  Joseph  Gillet,  and  Ed¬ 
ouard  Aynard  organized  a  company  with  a  capital  stock  of  200,000  francs 
($38,600),  each  one  subscribing  50,000  francs  ($9,650).  The  object  was 
to  purchase  land  and  erect  dwellings  for  working  people  in  which  the 
elements  of  hygiene,  economy,  and  domestic  comfort  should  receive 
due  consideration.  Dividends  were  limited  to  4  per  cent.  It  was  pro¬ 
vided  that  the  dwellings  could  be  sold  to  tenants,  but  the  main  object 
was  rental.  It  was  believed  that,  in  general,  it  was  not  desirable  to 
attempt  to  make  the  workingman  the  owner  of  his  home,  owing  to 
the  frequency  with  which  he  moved  from  place  to  place.  The  quar¬ 
ter  of  Lyons  known  as  de  la  Mouche  was  selected  as  the  site  for  build¬ 
ing  operations.  A  tract  of  land  71.71  meters  (235.27  feet)  in  length 
and  15  meters  (49.21  feet)  in  depth  was  purchased  at  a  cost  of  27.38 
francs  ($5.28)  per  square  meter.  The  area  was  1,060  square  meters 
(11,409.84  square  feet).  The  configuration  of  the  ground  permitted 
the  erection  of  five  buildings,  one  isolated  and  four  in  groups  of  two. 
The  total  cost  of  these  five  buildings,  including  all  incidental  expenses 


282  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


and  4  per  cent  interest  on  tlie  money  while  building  operations  were 
going  on,  was  143,539.61  francs  ($27,703.14),  exclusive  of  land.  The 
cost  of  the  latter  was  29,021.75  francs  ($5,601.20).  The  paving  of  side¬ 
walks,  courts,  and  accessories  absorbed  5,538.64  francs  ($1,068.96) 
additional.  The  average  cost  of  each  of  the  live  buildings  was  35,620 
francs  ($6,874.66);  of  each  of  the  sixty  tenements  contained  in  them 
2,968  francs  ($572.82).  The  rental  of  120  francs  ($23.16)  per  tenement 
per  year  was  therefore  fixed  as  the  rate  which  would  insure  4  per  ceut 
net  profit.  The  total  sum  received  for  rent  during  the  first  year  of 
operations  was  11,801.45  francs  ($2,277.68).  The  uncollectible  arrears 
amounted  to  247.75  francs  ($47.82).  There  were  no  empty  tenements. 
The  loss  from  rental  was  therefore  a  little  more  than  2  per  cent,  and 
was  due  chiefly  to  leniency  in  cases  of  death  or  sickness  in  families. 
The  total  expenses  were  2,034.06  iraucs  ($392.57).  The  net  returns 
were  9,767.39  francs  ($1,885.11).  Interest  at  4  per  cent  would  absorb 
7,124  francs  ($1,374.93).  There  remained,  afterpayment  of  all  expenses 
and  4  per  cent  dividend,  a  surplus  of  2,643.39  francs  ($510.17).  If  we 
subtract  from  this  a  partial  remission  of  taxation  on  newly  built  prop¬ 
erty,  which  holds  good  during  the  first  two  years,  the  sum  of  800  francs 
($154.40),  there  remained  a  reserve  of  1,843.39  francs  ($355.77). 

The  successful  results  achieved  by  this  joint  partnership  brought 
about  the  establishment  of  the  Cheap  Dwellings  Company  ( SocietS 
Anonyme  de  Logements  Economiques).  The  possibility  of  providing 
good  and  wholesome  accommodation  at  30  per  cent  less  than  the  ordi¬ 
nary  rates,  and  at  the  same  time  securing  a  return  of  4  per  cent  on  the 
capital  invested,  was  the  motive  for  extending  the  work.  The  capital 
stock  was  first  fixed  at  1,000,000  francs  ($193,000).  In  1890  it  was 
increased  to  2,000,000  francs  ($380,000),  and  recently  to  3,000,000  francs 
($579,000).  The  increase  has  been  due  to  the  necessities  of  the  com¬ 
pany  in  making  constant  additions  to  its  property.  There  has  been  no 
change  of  policy.  The  stock  is  held  partly  by  private  subscribers,  and 
the  local  savings  bank  has  subscribed  from  its  reserve  funds  one-half 
of  the  capital  stock. 

The  houses  selected  for  description  are  a  group  of  sixteen,  located  on 
four  squares,  fronting  each  other  and  each  subdivided  into  groups 
of  two  houses,  each  smaller  group  standing  entirely  alone.  About  50 
per  cent  of  the  ground  has  been  built  upon.  The  rear  open  space  is 
planted  with  trees.  The  houses  are  five  stories  high  and  are  built  of 
concrete  ( mdchefer ),  cut  stone  beiug  used  for  the  cornices.  The  stair¬ 
cases  are  of  stone,  with  iron  railings,  and  the  roofing  is  of  tiles.  The 
floors  rest  on  iron  joists  filled  in  with  masonry.  Cellars  are  partitioned 
with  cement  flags.  The  kitchens  are  paved  with  square  tiles;  all 
other  rooms  have  inlaid  floors  of  Burgundy  oak.  The  woodwork  of 
windows  and  of  outer  doors  is  of  oak.  Windows  on  the  ground  floor 
have  shutters,  and  on  the  floors  above  Venetian  blinds  have  been  used. 
Living  apartments,  halls,  and  water-closets  are  papered.  Kitchens  are 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


283 


. 


finished  in  plaster  of  paris  in  two  colors.  The  external  appearance  of 
the  houses  is  made  to  conform  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  prevailing 
type  of  habitation  in  the  city,  so  that  they  may  not  be  distinguished 
externally.  There  is  through  ventilation.  Three-room  tenements  have 
a  water-closet  for  the  sole  use  of  occupants,  but  the  occupants  of  two- 
room  tenements  use  a  closet  in  common.  Closets  are  inside  the  build¬ 
ings,  but  outside  the  tenements.  A  range  has  been  placed  in  each 
kitchen;  also  a  coal  box  and  cupboard  and  shelves.  There  is  a 
clothespress  in  each  tenement,  and  also  a  marble  mantelpiece  in  the 
largest  room.  The  ceilings  are  11  feet  6  inches  high  on  the  ground 
floor,  10  feet  10  inches  on  the  second  floor,  10  feet  0  inches  on  the  third 
floor,  10  feet  2  inches  on  the  fourth  floor,  and  8  feet  0  inches  on  the 
fifth  floor.  The  rental  for  two-room  tenements  varies  from  8  francs 
to  11  francs  ($1.54  to  $2.12)  per  month.  Three-room  tenements  rent 
from  14.50  francs  to  21.50  francs  ($2.80  to  $4.15)  per  month. 

The  total  number  of  buildings  owned  by  this  company  in  the  last 
fiscal  year  for  which  these  facts  were  available  was  fifty-five,  comprising 
647  tenements.  Four  per  cent  dividends  have  been  paid  annually 
since  the  foundation  of  the  enterprise,  and  the  total  reserve  up  to 
December  31,  1890,  amounted  to  45,041.58  francs  ($8,693.02),  or  about 
2£  per  cent  on  the  capital  stock  at  that  date.  A  portion  of  this  is  set 
aside  as  a  special  fund  to  guarantee  the  payment  of  future  dividends 
should  business  returns  not  be  so  favorable  at  any  time.  The  appre¬ 
ciation  of  the  excellent  accommodation  furnished  is  best  measured  by 
the  loss  of  reutal  resulting  from  unoccupied  tenements  during  the  fiscal 
year;  out  of  160  tenements  this  amounted  to  only  156  francs  ($30.11). 
ltents  are  paid  monthly  when  accrued.  Tenants  are  required  to  sign  a 
three  years’  lease.  The  rentals  in  these  buildings  are  about  30  per  cent 
less  than  for  very  much  inferior  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood. 
Subletting  or  taking  boarders  is  not  permitted. 

GERMANY. 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN. 

This  company  (Aktienbaugesellschaft  fur  kleine  Wohnungen)  com¬ 
menced  its  activities  in  1891.  Its  total  share  capital  is  605,000  marks 
($143,990),  and  there  is  besides  a  borrowed  capital  of  100,000  marks 
($23,800),  upon  which  latter  3|  per  cent  per  annum  is  paid.  The  annual 
dividends  paid  from  the  beginning  have  been  3^r  per  cent,  while  the  net 
profit  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  December  31,  1893,  exclusive  of  profit 
on  sale  of  land,  was  4.24  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  reserve  set 
aside  at  the  end  of  the  same  year  was  52,957.15  marks  ($12,603.80). 
The  present  estimated  value  of  lands  and  model  buildings  belonging 
to  the  company  is  717,558.26  marks  ($170,778.87).  The  sum  of  208.50 
marks  ($49.62)  represented  the  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  lodgings 
and  nonpayment  of  arrearages  during  the  year  1893.  Kents  are  paid 
monthly  in  advance.  They  are  brought  by  tenants  to  the  office  of  the 


284  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR 


company.  Fifteen  days’  written  notice  is  required  of  intention  to  leave. 
Two  weeks’  arrearage,  at  most,  is  allowed.  Where  the  case  is  a  worthy 
one  the  pubLc  relief  authorities  usually  extend  aid.  The  rents  are 
considerably  lower  than  those  paid  for  fairly  similar  accommodation  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  following  tables  give  an  interesting  exhibit  of 
the  occupations,  earnings  of  the  family,  the  cost  of  rent  in  the  York- 
strasse  and  Burgstrasse  tenements,  and  the  amount  paid  for  rent  in 
premises  previously  occupied : 

OCCUPATIONS,  EARNINGS,  AND  PRESENT  AND  FORMER  RENTS  OF  TENANTS  OF 

THE  YORKSTRASSE  TENEMENTS. 


Occupation. 


Blacksmith . . 

.Bookbinder . 

Bookbinder . 

Bookbinder . 

Cooper . 

Driver . 

Engraver . 

Foreman,  fire  company . . 

Gardener . . 

Gardener . . 

Glazier . . 

Hairdresser . 

Harbor  watchman . 

Havbor  watchman . . 

Janitor . 

Joiner . 

Joiner . . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer  ......... . . . . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . 

Laborer . . 

Lacquerer . 

Letter  carrier . 

Letter  carrier . . . 

Letter  carrier . . 

Licensed  messenger . . 

Licensed  messenger . . 

Licensed  messenger . 

Licensed  messenger  and  night 

watchman . . 

Locksmith . 

Locksmith  and  night  watch- 

mau . . 

Machinist . 

Mail  messenger . . 

Mail  messenger . . . 

Mail  messenger,  retired . . 

Mail-parcel  carrier . 

Mail-parcel  carrier . 

Mason . . 

Messenger . 

Messenger . 

Messenger . . . 

Messenger . 

Messenger . . 

Messenger  and  night  watch¬ 
man  . 

Nurse  (female) . 


4.  52 
4.28 
3.81 
4.76 
5.24 
3.81 

4.  76 
5.24 
4.76 
4.28 
4.28 
6.  64 
5.47 

5.  24 
2.  86 
4.28 
5.71 

3.81 

4.  76 

5.  71 
5. 47 
4.28 
7.14 

3.  09 
4.28 
5. 1)5 
5.71 
4.28 
5.24 
4.28 
4.28 

4.  05 

3.81 


Earnings  per 
week  of — 

Hus¬ 

band. 

Wife. 

$4.76 

4.  76 

4.  76 

4.  76 

5.  00 

5.  95 

3.  57 

$3. 33 

7.  14  ' 

2.  38 

4.7(5 
f>.  24 

5.  24 

....... 

5.  00 

5.  00 

3.81 

5.  00 

4.  28 

5.  00 

4.  28 

4.28 

.48 


2. 86 


Size 

of 

fam¬ 

ily- 

Rent  of 
present 
dwelling 
per 

month. 

Former  dwelling  place. 

Relation  of 
present  to 
former  rent 
paid  by 
tenants. 

Rent 

per 

month. 

Number  of— 

Rooms. 

Kitch¬ 

ens. 

Less. 

More. 

2 

$5. 00 

$2  86 

1 

$2. 14 

4 

4.  28 

3.  33 

1 

i 

.  95 

5 

5.24 

5. 00 

2 

.24 

2 

5.24 

5.95 

1 

i 

$0. 71 

3 

4.76 

6.66 

2 

i 

1.90 

7 

6. 19 

6. 19 

2 

i 

6 

4.05 

5.00 

2 

.95 

5 

5.  95 

6. 19 

2 

i 

.24 

7 

5.  00 

5. 95 

2 

i 

.95 

5 

6. 19 

11.90 

3 

i 

5.  71 

6 

4.76 

4. 28 

2 

.48 

6 

5.  95 

9.76 

3 

i 

3.81 

6 

5. 00 

6.  90 

2 

i 

1.90 

4 

4.76 

3.  57 

2 

i 

1.19 

4 

5. 95 

4.05 

2 

i 

1.90 

3 

5.00 

7.86 

2 

i 

2.  86 

4 

4.28 

3.  81 

1 

.47 

4 

3.81 

10.  00 

3 

i 

6. 19 

5 

3.81 

7.14 

2 

i 

3.  33 

5 

4.05 

5.  95 

3 

i 

1.90 

4 

4.  05 

4.  76 

2 

.71 

o 

3.57 

3.  57 

1 

1 

6 

5.  95 

8.  33 

2 

i 

2. 38 

4 

6. 19 

5. 95 

2 

i 

.24 

3 

6. 19 

7. 14 

4 

i 

.95 

6 

5.  23 

6.66 

2 

i 

1.43 

6 

5.24 

8.  09 

2 

i 

2.  85 

3 

6. 19 

7.14 

2 

i 

.95 

5 

5. 95 

6.66 

2 

i 

.71 

4 

3.81 

3.57 

1 

i 

.24 

6 

4. 28 

3.81 

1 

.47 

3 

4.05 

9.  52 

3 

i 

5. 47 

3 

5.  00 

5.  24 

2 

i 

.24 

3 

5.  95 

7. 14 

3 

i 

1.19 

5 

5.71 

7.85 

3 

i 

2. 14 

5 

5.71 

5. 71 

2 

1 

7 

5. 00 

5. 95 

2 

i 

.95 

4 

5.71 

4. 28 

1 

i 

1.43 

8 

4. 28 

7. 14 

2 

2. 86 

5 

4.28 

7. 14 

2 

i 

2. 86 

3 

5. 95 

5. 95 

3 

i 

5 

5.  95 

7. 14 

3 

i 

1.19 

3 

5. 00 

5.  24 

2 

i 

.24 

5 

5.  95 

8.81 

3 

i 

2.86 

3 

3.57 

5.  71 

2 

i 

2. 14 

3 

4.  05 

3.  57 

2 

.48 

5 

6.19 

5.95 

2 

i 

.24 

4 

4.  76 

5.  24 

2 

.  48 

5 

3.81 

4.  76 

2 

i 

.95 

6 

5.71 

8.  33 

2 

l 

2.  62 

o 

5.  71 

5. 47 

2 

.24 

5 

5.  00 

8.  33 

3 

l 

3. 33 

3 

5. 00 

4.76 

1 

l 

.24 

5 

4. 28 

7.  61 

2 

l 

3.33 

3 

3.81 

3. 33 

1 

.48 

CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS, 


285 


OCCUPATIONS,  EARNINGS,  ETC.-Concluded. 


Occupation. 


Earnings  per 
week  of— 


Hus¬ 

band. 


Wife. 


Size 

of 

fam¬ 

ily- 


Rent  of 
present 
dwelling 
per 

month. 


Former  dwelling  place. 


Rent 

per 

mouth. 


Number  of— 


Rooms. 


Kitch¬ 

ens. 


Relation  of 
present  to 
former  rent 
paid  by 
tenants. 


Less. 


More. 


Packer . 

Packer . 

Passementerie  maker . 

Passementerie  maker . 

Portfolio  maker . 

Printer  . 

Railroad  yard  switchman . 

Roofer . 

Seamstress . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . . . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . 

Shoemaker . 

Stage  carpenter . 

Stonecutter . 

Street  railway  employee . 

Street  railway  employee . 

Swimming  school  teacher . 

Tailor . 

Tailor . 

Tailor . 

Tinsmith . 

Tinsmith . 

Tinsmith . 

Tinsmith . 

Weaver,  ribbon . 

No  occupation  (widow) . 

No  occupation  (widow) . 

Not  specified  (widow) . 

Not  specified  (widow) . 

Not  specified  (widow) . 


$3.57 

4.28 

4.  76 

3.81 

3.57 

5.71 

3.81 

4. 76 

$2.86 

4.28 

4.28 

5. 95 

3. 33 

4.28 

3. 57 

2.  86 

2. 14 

7. 14 

4.05 
3. 81 

. 

4. 28 

4. 76 

3. 33 

4. 28 

3.  57 
5.95 

.71 

5.71 

4.  76 

4. 76 

4.28 

4.76 
3.33 
2. 86 


2 

2 

5 

2 

4 

5 
4 

6 
2 
4 

7 
4 
6 

3 
6 

4 

3 

5 
5 
2 

4 

5 

3 

4 

8 

5 

3 

4 
3 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
2 


$5.00 

$5. 95 

5.24 

5.24 

6. 19 

6. 66 

5.71 

5. 47 

5. 95 

7.  38 

4.76 

2.86 

4.76 

4.76 

5.71 

8.  52 

3.81 

2.  38 

4.  76 

7. 14 

3.81 

3.  57 

5. 95 

4. 76 

5.95 

9. 04 

4.  76 

4. 76 

5.24 

5.  95 

5. 95 

6.  90 

3.81 

4.76 

5. 95 

5.00 

5.00 

5.71 

5.00 

5. 47 

4. 76 

4.76 

6. 19 

7. 62 

5.95 

4.28 

5. 95 

4.76 

4.28 

4.  28 

4. 28 

5.  23 

5.71 

9.99 

4.28 

7.37 

4.  76 

4.28 

4. 28 

6. 18 

3.81 

5.24 

5. 95 

5.95 

4.  04 

3.09 

3. 57 

4.28 

3. 57 

5.  00 

2 

$0. 95 

2 

2 

1 

.47 

2 

1 

$0.24 

2 

1 

1.43 

1 

1 

1.90 

2 

1 

3 

1 

2.81 

1 

1.43 

2 

1 

2.  38 

2 

.24 

2 

1. 19 

3 

1 

3.09 

1 

1 

2 

1 

.71 

2 

1 

.95 

2 

.95 

2 

1 

_.95 

2 

.71 

2 

.47 

2 

2 

1 

1. 43 

2 

1 

1.67 

2 

1 

1.  19 

2 

3 

1 

.95 

4 

1 

4.28 

3 

1 

3. 09 

1 

1 

.48 

3 

1 

1.90 

2 

1 

1.43 

2 

1 

2 

.95 

1 

1 

.71 

2 

1 

1.43 

Persons  paying  less  than  formerly . . . 54 

Persons  paying  more  than  formerly .  . 26 

Persons  paying  same  as  formerly .  10 


Total 


90 


OCCUPATIONS,  EARNINGS,  AND  PRESENT  AND  FORMER  RENTS  OF  TENANTS  OF 

THE  BURGSTRASSE  TENEMENTS. 


Occupation. 

Earnings  per 
week  of— 

Size 

fam- 

Hus¬ 

band. 

Wife. 

iiy. 

Baker . . . 

$4.28 
4.  05 

6 

3 

5. 00 

$1.19 

2 

Butcher . . . 

6 

4.  28 

.95 

3 

4.28 

2.  38 

2 

5. 24 

3 

3.57 

4 

Charwoman . 

2.  86 

5 

2. 38 

3 

2. 86 

2 

3.57 

3 

3.  33 

4 

4.05 

2. 38 

2 

4.  76 

3 

5. 00 

5 

Foreman  fire  company  and 
janitor . 

7.14 

6 

Rent  of 
present 

Former  dwelling  place. 

Relation  of 
present  to 
former  rent 
paid  by 
tenants. 

dwelling 

per 

Rent 

Number  of— 

month. 

per 

month. 

Rooms. 

Kitch¬ 

ens. 

Less. 

More. 

$3.57 

$2.86 

1 

i 

$0.  71 

3.57 

4.  28 

1 

$0.  71 

. 

3. 57 

7. 14 

7. 14 

2 

i 

3.57 

Sh 

.24 

op. 

3. 33 

3. 57 

1 

i 

3. 57 

4.05 

1 

i 

.48 

....... 

5.71 

4.  76 

1 

i 

.95 

3. 33 

4.76 

2 

1. 43 

....... 

3.57 

3.33 

3.57 

4.28 
2. 86 

2 

1 

i 

.71 

4.28 

1 

i 

.71 

3.57 

6. 43 

2 

i 

2.86 

....... 

3. 33 

5.47 

2 

i 

2.  14 

....... 

3.  57 

4. 28 

1 

i 

.71 

....... 

3. 33 

3.81 

2 

i 

.48 

....... 

4.76 

8.  57 

3 

i 

3.81 

. 

5. 71 

3. 81 

2 

i 

1. 90 

286  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR, 


OCCUPATIONS,  EABNINGS,  ETC.— Concluded. 


Occupation. 

Earnings  per 
week  of— 

Size 

of 

fam¬ 

ily- 

Eent  of 

present 

dwelling 

per 

month. 

Former  dwelling  place. 

Kelation  of 
present  to 
former  rent 
paid  by 
tenants. 

Hus¬ 

band. 

Wife. 

Eent 

per 

month. 

Number  of— 

Booms. 

Kitch¬ 

ens. 

Less. 

More. 

$6. 19 

6 

$3.57 

$7. 14 

2 

i 

$3.57 

1 

5.71 

8. 80 

3 

i 

3.  09 

7 

7. 14 

Store. 

4. 28 

3 

3.  33 

3.57 

l 

.24 

5.24 

6 

3.81 

4.  28 

2 

i 

.47 

5.47 

3 

3.57 

3.  57 

1 

i 

5.  00 

4 

3.57 

4. 76 

2 

1. 19 

5.71 

6 

3.81 

8.  33 

3 

i 

4.52 

5.  71 

4 

3.  57 

4.05 

1 

i 

.48 

4. 7G 

7 

3. 57 

3. 33 

1 

i 

$0. 24 

5.  71 

4 

5. 24 

8.  81 

2 

i 

3. 57 

5.  00 

4 

5.  24 

7. 14 

2 

i 

1.  90 

4  28 

$0.71 

3 

3. 57 

2.  86 

1 

.71 

4.  28 

41 

3.57 

2.  86 

1 

i 

.71 

8  81 

1. 19 

5 

3.57 

3.93 

2 

.36 

4.  "0 

.  48 

4 

3.33 

4.  28 

2 

i 

.95 

4.28 

6 

3.  57 

2.  86 

1 

.71 

4.  28 

8 

3.  57 

7.62 

3 

i 

4.05 

4.  28 

5 

3.  57 

2.  38 

1 

1. 19 

4.  28 

2.  38 

7 

3.  81 

5.  24 

2 

i 

1.43 

4.  76 

5 

3.  33 

2.  38 

1 

.95 

3.  81 

2.  86 

3 

3.81 

3.  33 

2 

.48 

4.76 

5 

3.  57 

3.  09 

2 

i 

.48 

4.  28 

3 

3.  57 

4. 52 

2 

i 

.95 

5.00 

4 

3.33 

2. 86 

2 

l 

.47 

2.  86 

2 

3.  57 

6. 19 

2 

i 

2. 62 

4.76 

5 

3.  57 

3.  81 

2 

l 

.24 

4.  28 

2.  86 

2 

3.81 

4.  05 

2 

.24 

4. 28 

5 

3. 33 

1 

.48 

4.  76 

1. 19 

3 

3.33 

2.  o 

1 

.47 

Laborer . 

5.47 

4 

5.  24 

10.7' 

3 

l 

5.47 

4.76 

7 

4. 76 

6. 19 

2 

l 

1.43 

4.  76 

6 

4. 76 

5.  95 

2 

i 

1. 19 

5.  00 

.95 

4 

4.  76 

4.  28 

2 

1 

.48 

Laborer . 

4.  28 

6 

5. 71 

5.  95 

3 

i 

.24 

5.  24 

4 

5. 24 

2.  86 

2 

i 

2.  38 

Licensed  messenger . 

3.  81 

5 

3.57 

7. 14 

2 

i 

3.  57 

Licensed  messenger . 

4.76 

5 

3. 33 

2.  86 

1 

i 

.47 

4.  28 

6 

3. 81 

7  62 

3 

i 

3.  81 

3.  57 

1.43 

7 

3.  81 

5  00 

21 

i 

1.  19 

4.  28 

.48 

3 

3.  57 

7  14 

2 

1 

3.  57 

Locksmith . 

5. 47 

3 

5.71 

1 

i 

.95 

7. 14 

6 

5.  71 

4.  28 

3 

1 

1.43 

Locksmith . 

4.  28 

.95 

3 

4.  76 

4  05 

1 

i 

.71 

Locksmith . 

5.  47 

8 

4.76 

10.  00 

3 

i 

5.  24 

Machinist . . . 

7. 14 

.48 

4 

3.  81 

4. 17 

3 

.  36 

Machinist . 

7. 14 

3 

5.  24 

5.  95 

2 

3 

.71 

Mail  messenger . 

7. 14 

5 

3. 57 

4.  52 

4 

1 

.95 

Mail  messenger,  assistant . 

4.  52 

2 

3. 33 

1.43 

1 

1.  90 

Mason . 

6.  43 

3 

3. 81 

3.  57 

1 

.24 

Member  fire  company . 

5.  47 

5 

3.  81 

6. 67 

2 

i 

2.  86 

Messenger . 

4.  52 

4 

3. 57 

7. 14 

2 

i 

3.  57* 

Messenger  . . 

4.  76 

5 

3. 33 

5.  83 

2 

i 

2.  50 

Messenger . 

4.  76 

4 

3.  81 

4.  52 

2 

.71 

Messenger  . . . . . 

4.  05 

7 

5. 24 

4.  05 

2 

1. 19 

Messenger . 

4.  76 

4 

5.  24 

5.  00 

2 

i 

.24 

Messenger . 

4.  76 

4 

5. 24 

6.  66 

2 

1 

1.42 

Messenger . . . . 

4.  28 

2 

5. 24 

2. 86 

1 

2. 38 

Nurse  (female) . . . 

3.57 

3 

3. 33 

3. 33 

2 

i 

Polislier,  stone . 

4.  76 

7 

3.81 

5.71 

2 

i 

1.  90 

Post  office  employee . 

4.  05 

2 

3.57 

4.  76 

2 

...f.... 

1. 19 

Shoemaker . 

3.  09 

1. 19 

5 

3.  81 

7.  85 

2 

1 

4  04 

Shoemaker . . . 

4.76 

7 

3.  57 

4.  76 

2 

i 

1. 19 

Shoemaker . 

3.  57 

5 

3.57 

6.  43 

2 

i 

2.  86 

Shoemaker . 

4.  28 

4 

3. 57 

2. 38 

1 

i 

1. 19 

Sh  oemaker _ _ _ 

4.  52 

6 

5. 23 

5.  47 

2 

1 

.  24 

Teamster . . . 

4.28 

1. 19 

4 

3. 33 

2.  86 

1 

.  47 

Teamster _ _ 

4. 28 

.95 

3 

3.81 

4. 05 

1 

1 

.  24 

Tinsmith . 

4.  76 

5 

3.81 

5. 00 

2 

1 

1. 19 

Turner,  iron . . . 

5.  71 

3 

3.  57 

4.  76 

2 

1. 19 

Turner,  screws . 

5.71 

6 

3.81 

3.33 

2 

i 

.48 

Persons  paying  less  tlian  formerly .  50 

Persons  paying  more  tlian  formerly . 28 

Persons  paying  same  as  formerly . . .  2 

Not  reported .  2 

Total .  88 


Front  elevation. 

TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY— TWO-ROOM 

DWELLINGS. 

Plan  No.  41  a. 


; 


! 


Rear  elevation. 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY— TWO-ROOM 

DWELLINGS. 


Plan  No.  41  b. 


f- 


-> 


r  .s  e 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY— TWO-RQQM  DWELLINGS, 

_  Pi  am  Mr>  A1  r>  >.  __  _  _ . . _  _  - 


Front  elevation. 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY— THREE-ROOM 

DWELLINGS. 


Plan  No.  42  a. 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY— THREE-ROOM 

DWELLINGS. 


Plan  No.  42  b. 


33/0'  — 

Ground  floor. 


TENEMENT  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAIN,  GERMANY-THREE-ROOM 

DWELLINGS. 


Plan  No.  42  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  287 

About  one-half  the  occupants  live  within  half  a  mile  of  their  places 
of  employment  and  the  others  less  than  a  mile. 

The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  41  A,  41  B,  and  41  0  and  42  A, 
42  B,  and  42  C)  show  front  and  rear  elevations  and  ground  iloor  plans 
of  buildings  for  two-room  tenements  and  for  three-room  tenements. 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  is  about  205  feet  9  inches  on  one  street  and 
157  feet  2  inches  on  another.  The  depth  is  irregular,  averaging,  prob¬ 
ably,  70  feet  10  inches.  About  one-half  of  the  area  has  been  built  upon. 
The  open  space  is  at  the  rear  and  is  partly  paved.  Drying  clothes 
is  not  permitted  in  the  yard,  as  it  interferes  with  the  children’s  play. 
The  buildings  are  four  stories  high  and  are  constructed  of  rough  brick, 
covered  with  plaster  and  smoothed  in  imitation  of  stone.  Trimmings 
are  of  brownstone.  The  roofing  is  of  slate,  staircases  of  oak,  and 
corridors  are  paved  in  asphalt.  Interior  walls  are  of  brick,  and  the 
wooden  rafters  are  filled  in  with  mortar.  The  buildings  are  therefore 
fairly  fireproof.  There  is  a  cellar  to  the  buildings  paved  in  cement  and 
used  for  storage  purposes.  There  are  two  distinct  types  of  buildings. 
One  type  is  constructed  for  two-room  tenements,  and  has  one  corridor  for 
four  families  on  each  floor,  the  corridors  being  simply  part  of  the  stair, 
case  landing.  The  corridors  are  8  feet  2  inches  wide  by  11  feet  10  inches 
long.  At  one  end  are  water-closets  and  sinks  separated  by  doors  and 
a  brick  wall,  at  the  other  end  is  the  staircase.  The  staircases  have  no 
turn,  a  landing  being  placed  halfway  between  the  floors;  staircases  are 
3  feet  7  inches  wide.  A  window  on  each  floor  lights  the  staircase. 

The  other  type  contains  three- room  tenements  and  has  two  families 
on  each  floor.  At  the  head  of  the  stairway  is  a  landings  feet  2  inches 
long  by  3  feet  11  inches  wide,  and  communicating  with  this  is  a  private 
corridor  3  feet  11  inches  by  4  feet  7  inches  for  each  family;  this  runs 
into  the  kitchen  and  the  living  room.  The  tenements  are  self-con¬ 
tained  in  every  respect,  the  water-closets  being  reached  by  another 
private  hallway  at  the  rear,  which  opens  to  the  bedroom  and  to  the 
kitchen.  There  is  through  ventilation  for  all  rooms,  the  bed  and  the 
living  rooms  by  connecting  doors  and  windows,  the  kitchen  by  the  pri¬ 
vate  corridor  and  stairway  on  the  one  side  and  private  hallway  on  the 
other,  all  of  which  communicate  directly  with  the  open  air.  Closets 
in  the  second  type  described  communicate  directly  with  the  open  air 
and  are  well  ventilated.  Closets  in  the  first  type  are  ventilated  from 
above. 

There  are  no  special  arrangements  to  prevent  promiscuous  mingling 
of  occupants  upon  stairways  and  landings,  except  to  prohibit  it  in  a 
general  regulation.  Water-closets  are  of  modern  construction  and  are 
well  flushed.  Soil  pipes  are  placed  within  the  walls  between  the  closets 
and  run  directly  to  the  sewer;  they  are  open  above  the  roof.  A  sink 
is  placed  in  each  kitchen.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water  is  allowed, 
tenants  having  to  pay  a  special  water  rate.  Coal  is  used  for  heating 
and  oil  for  lighting  within  the  dwellings.  The  front  door  is  closed  at 


288  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

10  p.  m.,  but  all  tenants  are  provided  with  keys.  Stairs  and  corridors 
are  lighted  from  dusk  to  9  p.  m.  in  winter  and  to  9.30  p.  m.  in  sum¬ 
mer.  The  common  stairways  and  corridors  are  cleaned  by  employees 
of  the  company.  Washing  is  done  in  the  dwellings  and  drying  in  the 
attic.  Regulations  prescribe  the  days  when  families  may  use  the  dry¬ 
ing  room.  A  stove,  with  boiler  attached,  is  placed  in  each  kitchen.  A 
portable  receptacle  for  each  family  serves  as  a  garbage  box,  and  is 
removed  twice  a  week  by  public  scavengers.  There  are  no  pantries  or 
clothespresses.  All  rooms  not  used  as  kitchens  are  provided  with  orna¬ 
mental  iron  stoves,  which  may  also  be  used  for  heating  flatirons.  There 
are  balconies  on  each  floor  in  houses  of  type  1,  and  one  for  each  family 
in  houses  of  type  2.  The  walls  of  the  rooms  are  papered.  In  type  1 
kitchens  are  17  feet  by  10  feet  6  inches  and  bedrooms  17  feet  by  9 
feet  2  inches.  In  type  2  kitchens  are  10  feet  8  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches, 
bedrooms  15  feet  by  8  feet  11  inches,  and  living  rooms  16  feet  5  inches 
by  11  feet  4  inches.  Rentals  for  two-room  tenements  vary  from  14 
marks  ($3.33)  in  the  fourth  story  to  16  marks  ($3.81)  in  the  second 
story.  In  the  first  and  third  stories  this  style  of  accommodation  rents 
for  15  marks  ($3.57)  per  month.  Three-room  tenements  rent  for  20 
marks  ($4.76)  in  the  fourth  story,  24  marks  ($5.71)  in  the  second  story, 
and  22  marks  ($5.24)  in  the  first  and  third  stories. 

This  company  owns  sixteen  buildings,  containing  97  two*room  tene¬ 
ments,  24  two-rooms  with  hallway,  and  55  three-room  tenements. 

BERLIN  MUTUAL  BUILDING  COMPANY,  BERLIN. 

The  location  of  the  building  belonging  to  this  company  (Berliner 
Gemeinniitziger  Baugesellschaft)  which  has  been  selected  for  description 
is  at  No.  12  Buchholzerstrasse.  About  50  per  cent  of  the  total  area  is 
covered  with  buildings.  The  open  space  is  a  court  in  the  rear,  parti¬ 
tioned  off  so  that  each  section  of  the  block  is  independent  of  the  others. 
The  building  is  of  brick,  with  tile  roofing  and  stone  staircases.  No 
further  means  have  been  taken  to  make  the  building,! fireproof.  There 
is  a  cellar  paved  with  bricks  and  divided  by  stone  and  brick  partitions 
into  small  storage  cells.  Staircases  are  wide  and  ventilated  by  double 
windows.  Each  tenement  has  a  small  private  hallway.  Every  family 
is  thus  well  isolated.  Each  tenement  opens  both  on  the  street  and 
court,  affording  through  circulation.  Families  occupying  three-room 
and  four-room  tenements  have  separate  water- closets^  but  occupants 
of  two-room  tenements  have  one  closet  for  every  two  families.  Closets 
have  been  placed  inside  the  building,  are  reached  only  from  the  stair¬ 
case  landing,  and  are  provided  with  ventilating  shafts  and  windows 
connecting  directly  with  the  open  air.  They  are  flushed  by  means  of 
lifting  knobs.  Water  and  waste  from  the  kitchens  and  closets  run 
directly  to  the  sewers  through  interior  conduits.  Rain  water  also  runs 
to  the  sewer.  Heating  is  done  by  porcelain  stoves  within  the  tene¬ 
ments.  Stairs  are  lighted  by  gas  from  dusk  until  10  p.  m.,  but 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


289 


tenants  as  a  rule  use  oil  lamps  in  their  own  rooms.  Laundries  have 
been  placed  in  the  cellar,  and  each  family  has  the  use  of  one  for  two 
days  out  of  every  month.  Each  kitchen  has  a  large  range  with  oven. 
Receptacles  for  garbage  are  placed  in  the  yard,  to  which  all  refuse  must 
be  carried;  the  company  pays  for  its  periodical  hauling  away.  Clothes- 
presses  have  not  been  placed  iu  tenements,  the  people  preferring  their 
own  wardrobes.  There  are  no  window  shutters,  balconies,  or  porches. 
Each  tenement  has  been  furnished  with  a  doorbell.  The  bedroom  and 
kitchen  walls  are  painted;  the  living  room  is  papered.  Floors  are  oiled 
and  ceilings  are  frescoed.  Externally  the  walls  have  been  covered  with 
mortar  in  imitation  of  stone. 

Rentals  of  two-room  tenements  vary  from  150  marks  to  205  marks 
($35.70  to  $48.79)  per  annum.  Three-room  tenements  rent  for  300  marks 
to  315  marks  ($71.40  to  $74.97)  per  annum.  A  few  of  the  smaller  three- 
room  tenements  rent  for  225  marks  ($53.55)  per  annum. 

In  the  prevailing  type  of  two-room  tenements  the  kitchens  are  13 feet 
by  9  feet  4  inches,  and  the  bedrooms  17  feet  G  in  dies  by  12  feet  1 1  inches. 
Average  sized  three-room  tenements  contain  kitchens  13  feet  by  7  feet 
1  inch,  living  rooms  17  feet  6  inches  by  13  feet  1  inch,  and  bedrooms  17 
feet  11  inches  by  8  feet  G  iuches.  The  private  corridor  is  4  feet  1  inch  by 
7  feet  1  inch.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  4  inches  high. 

The  company  commenced  operations  in  1849.  In  1892  it  possessed 
fifty  buildings,  containing  491  tenements;  219  were  two-room  tenements, 
234  three-room  tenements,  and  38  four-room  tenements.  The  company 
was  organized  on  a  purely  phil an tliropic  basis.  The  original  stock  was 
subscribed  to  form  a  fund  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  real  estate  and 
providing  homes  for  the  poorer  working  people.  Dividends  were  limited 
to  4  per  cent,  and  all  increase  in  the  value  of  the  company’s  property, 
either  by  added  increment  to  its  real  estate  or  by  increased  building 
construction,  was  to  be  devoted  to  the  fund  itself.  In  the  accounts  of 
the  fund,  therefore,  the  share  capital  is  counted  as  a  debt  against  it; 
nothing  more.  Up  to  October  31,  1893,  the  actual  expense  for  land 
bought  about  forty-five  years  ago  and  the  buildings  erected  from  time 
to  time  since  amounted  to  1,642,G31.72  marks  ($390,946.35),  of  which 
about  200,000  marks  ($47, GOO)  was  actually  paid  for  land.  In  addition 
to  this  a  legacy  (Alexandra  Stiftung)  is  also  managed  by  the  company, 
the  ground  and  buildings  representing  the  investment  of  which  had  cost 
up  to  October  31,  1893, 1,031,991.90  marks  ($245,614.07).  This  makes  a 
total  of  2,674,623.62  marks  ($636,560.42)  paid  out  for  land  and  houses. 
It  is  on  this  amount  that  rents  are  based. 

An  official  estimate  made  in  May,  1892,  of  the  actual  value  of  these 
properties  placed  it  at  4,621,039  marks  ($1,099,807.28).  Subtract¬ 
ing  from  this  amount  the  share  capital,  208,500  marks  ($49,623),  the 
money  borrowed  on  mortgages,  C23,400  marks  ($148,369.20),  and  mis¬ 
cellaneous  liabilities,  203,200  marks  ($48,361.60),  amounting  altogether 


H.  Ex.  354 - 19 


290  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


to  1,035,100  marks  ($246,353.80),  there  was  left  a  balance  of  3,585,939 
marks  ($853,453.48),  which  represented  the  value  of  the  original  fund 
at  that  date,  free  of  all  incumbrances. 

The  company  can  issue  new  stock  to  the  amount  of  1,000,000  marks 
($238,000),  but  new  stock  has  never  been  issued  except  at  times  when 
money  was  needed  for  building  purposes  and  could  not  be  obtained  for 
4  per  cent  or  less.  Four  per  cent  has  been  paid  to  stockholders  since  the 
beginning  of  the  enterprise.  The  company  has  had  to  pay  from  3|  to 
4  per  cent  for  money  borrowed  on  buildings  erected  on  its  own  account 
and  4£  per  cent  on  buildings  erected  on  account  of  the  Alexandra  fund. 
So  far  nothing  has  been  loaned  by  the  government,  although  efforts 
are  now  being  made  to  secure  a  loan  from  it  at  a  low  rate  of  interest. 

The  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  lodgings  has  been  practically 
nothing  during  recent  fiscal  years.  Rents  are  paid  quarterly  in  advance 
to  the  resident  agent  at  his  office.  Three  months’  notice  is  required  of 
intention  to  quit.  Arrearages  of  rent  almost  never  occur,  and  when 
they  do  the  treatment  of  the  tenant  largely  depends  upon  circumstances. 
Rentals  have  remained  fixed  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  they  are  about 
25  per  cent  cheaper  than  for  practically  similar  accommodation  in  the 
neighborhood.  It  is  calculated,  however,  that  they  absorb  about  20  per 
cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  heads  of  tenant  families.  The  average  dura¬ 
tion  of  tenancy  has  been  twenty  years.  Subletting  is  not  permitted, 
and  boarders  are  likewise  prohibited  under  the  regulations,  but  they 
are,  nevertheless,  taken. 

The  occupations  of  458  heads  of  tenant  families  are  as  follows:  There 
are  83  proprietors  of  stores  and  workshops,  with  average  annual  earn¬ 
ings  of  1,000  marks  to  1,500  marks  ($238  to  $357);  147  artisans  and 
laborers,  with  average  annual  earnings  of  1,000  marks  ($238)  ;  13  clerks 
and  salesmen,  with  average  annual  earnings  of  1,000  marks  ($238);  75 
government  employees,  with  average  annual  earnings  of  500  marks  to 
600  marks  ($119  to  $142.80);  13  functionaries,  with  average  annual 
earnings  of  500  marks  to  650  marks  ($119  to  $154.70);  127  widows  and 
spinsters  variously  employed,  with  average  annual  earnings  of  500 
marks  ($119). 

Persons  having  a  yearly  income  under  500  marks  ($119)  or  over  3,000 
marks  ($714)  are  ruled  out  as  tenants.  Porters,  janitors,  and  other 
assistants  are  usually  selected  from  among  the  oldest  tenants,  who  are 
generally  functionaries.  They  receive  no  salary,  nor  are  they  granted 
reduced  rentals.  They  gladly  assume  the  duties  of  Treeping  order, 
lighting  the  halls,  etc.,  for  the  honor  of  holding  the  position.  A  small 
gratuity,  usually  30  marks  ($7.14),  is  given  them  at  Christmas.  In  con¬ 
nection  with  the  company’s  buildings  there  are  four  day  nurseries,  which 
are  sustained  by  other  philanthropic  societies.  They  have  rooms  in  the 
building  and  pay  reduced  rentals. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


291 


SOCIETY  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  TENEMENTS,  BERLIN. 

This  company  (Verein  zur  Verbesserung  der  kleinen  Wohnungen)  has 
purchased  six  old  houses,  renovated  them,  and  is  renting  them  at  the 
lowest  possible  figure.  It  has  constructed  no  new  buildings.  Up  to 
1891  it  had  not  paid  any  dividends,  all  profits  being  turned  into  the 
reserve  fund,  which  then  amounted  to  22,381.22  marks  ($5,326.73).  The 
net  profits  for  1891  were  sufficient  to  have  paid  nearly  2  per  cent  had 
they  been  divided.  The  estimated  value  of  the  property  of  the  com¬ 
pany  is  925,993.43  marks  ($220,386.44).  The  rent  roll  during  the  fiscal 
year  1891  amounted  to  60,329.08  marks  ($14,358.32).  The  rent  for  single 
rooms  varies  from  7.75  marks  to  14  marks  ($1.84  to  $3.33)  per  month. 
Two-room  tenements  rent  for  from  10.25  marks  to  25.50  marks  ($2.44  to 
$6.07)  per  month;  three-room  tenements,  15  marks  to  63.25  marks  ($3.57 
to  $15.05)  per  month;  four-room  tenements,  31  marks  to  63.50  marks 
($7.38  to  $15.11)  per  month;  five-room  tenements,  52.50  marks  ($12.50) 
per  month.  The  company  possesses  205  tenements,  which  in  1891 
were  inhabited  by  893  people.  Kents  are  paid  monthly,  and  the 
system  of  collection  by  ladies  is  made  use  of.  The  average  rental  of 
this  property,  which  was  formerly  390  marks  ($92.82)  per  annum,  has 
been  reduced  to  250  marks  ($59.50)  since  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  company,  while  the  net  return  from  the  property  has  been  greater 
than  previously.  The  majority  of  the  tenants  belong  strictly  to  the 
laboring  population. 

The  annual  report  for  1892  says : 

In  the  management  of  our  houses  ethical  aims  have  been  leading 
features,  and  we  believe  that  we  can  further  the  same  by  a  new  arrange¬ 
ment  made  during  this  year  in  accordance  with  the  Miss  Octavia  Hill 
system.  We  have  contracted  with  a  ladies’  committee  tor  the  collection 
of  a  large  part  of  the  rents  in  our  smaller  tenements  since  May,  1891. 
By  this  means  the  ladies  have  been  brought  into  constant  intercourse 
with  the  tenants  and  have  endeavored  to  gain  their  confidence.  They 
have  opportunities  for  giving  advice  in  many  ways,  as  to  bringing  up 
children,  family  hygiene,  etc.,  and  they  have  often  succeeded  in  obtain¬ 
ing  suitable  employment  for  tenants,  thereby  preventing  misery  and 
suffering.  The  company  has  by  this  means  come  nearer  to  accomplish¬ 
ing  its  aim,  which  is  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  tenants  the  fact  that 
they  are  living  in  houses  owned  by  a  society  for  public  utility,  in  which, 
although  regulations,  necessarily  strict,  exist  regarding  payment  of 
rent  and  interior  management,  every  effort  is  made  to  comply  with 
their  wishes  in  regard  to  keeping  the  dwellings  in  good  condition,  as 
well  as  to  give  careful  attention  to  their  personal  interests  from  a  public- 
spirited  point  of  view.  We  hope  to  succeed  in  still  further  extending 
the  scope  of  the  work  of  the  ladies  and  to  organize  a  regular  institu¬ 
tion,  in  which  a  new  ladies’  society  will  be  called  into  existence  to  work 
in  our  houses,  and  will,  hand  in  hand  with  our  company,  foster  its 
ethical  aims 


292  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


PROPOSED  TENEMENTS  OP  VALENTIN  WEISBACH,  BERLIN. 

Valentin  Weisbach,  president  of  the  Society  for  the  Improvement 
of  Tenements,  was  in  1893  about  to  construct  tenement  houses  on  land 
which  he  owned  in  the  outskirts  of  Berlin,  according  to  the  accompany¬ 
ing  plans  (plans  Nos.  43  A  and  43  B). 

The  buildings  will  be  five  stories  high,  containing  accommodation 
for  from  ten  to  twelve  families  in  each  separate  division.  The  size  of 
ordinary  tenements  will  be  two  rooms  and  kitchen  for  a  family.  This 
is  in  deference  to  a  prevailing  practice  in  Berlin,  where  rentals  are  so 
higli  that  lodgers  have  to  be  taken.  The  rent  will  be  the  same  as  that 
now  charged  for  a  single  room  and  kitchen  in  other  parts  of  Berlin. 
This  plan  will  help  the  single  man  to  secure  good  accommodations, 
while  it  will  not  run  contrary  to  the  acquired  habits  of  the  people. 

MEYER’S  MODEL  TENEMENT  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC. 

Leipsic  has  developed  industrially  to  a  remarkable  extent  during  the 
last  twenty-five  years,  and  the  need  for  housing  has  correspondingly 
grown.  Houses  that  were  built  originally  for  the  use  of  working  people 
have  been  resold  at  advanced  prices,  and  the  rents,  already  high,  rel¬ 
ative  to  income,  have  been  increased  by  the  new  proprietors.  Mr. 
Herrmann  J.  Meyer,  a  wealthy  philanthropist,  recognizing  this  fact, 
determined  to  undertake  the  provision  of  model  dwellings,  fixing  the 
rent  on  the  basis  of  3  j>er  cent  net  on  his  investment,  and  spending  the 
net  income  each  year  in  extending  the  work.  In  this  plan  he  has 
followed  the  conceptions  underlying  the  Peabody  trust. 

A  large  plot  of  land  was  purchased,  having  a  total  area  of  158,829 
square  feet.  It  has  been  laid  out  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  plan 
(plan  No.  44  A). 

About  28  per  cent  of  the  ground  has  been  built  upon.  The  open 
space  is  in  the  form  of  a  court  in  the  center,  which  has  been  divided 
into  numerous  small  gardens,  each  reached  by  a  gravel  walk.  In  the 
center  is  a  space  for  drying  clothes,  and  at  one  corner  is  a  playground 
for  children.  Each  tenant  has  his  own  space  fenced  and  locked  in. 
The  spaces  cost  the  tenants  a  rental  of  7.80  marks  ($1.86)  per  year. 
The  drying  ground  and  playground  are  for  the  free  use  of  occupants. 
Many  of  the  tenants  have  built  small  summer  houses  on  their  spaces, 
and  nearly  all  have  planted  flowers.  In  the  summer  time  picnics  are 
often  held,  at  which  tenants  entertain  their  outside  friends. 

The  buildings  are  four  stories  high  and  built  of  brick.  The  roofing 
is  of  tiles,  and  the  staircases  are  built  of  oak.  Each  separate  section 
has  a  staircase,  and  access  from  one  section  to  the  other  can  easily  be 
had  over  the  roof.  Aside  from  this  there  are  no  special  arrangements 
to  provide  escape  in  case  of  fire.  The  buildings  have  a  cellar  paved 
with  bricks,  which  is  used  for  storage  purposes,  and  there  is  space  par¬ 
titioned  off  for  each  family.  The  laundry  is  also  situated  in  the  cellar. 


PROPOSED  TENEMENTS  OF  VALENTIN  WEISBACH,  BERLIN,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  43  a. 


yY  o  A.  T  H-. 


MEYER’S  TENEMENT  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC,  GERMANY. 
Plan  No.  44  a. 


— 


MEYER’S  TENEMENT  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC,  GERMANY. 
Plan  No.  44  b. 


f  O 


MEYER’S  TENEMENT  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  44  c. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


293 


About  twelve  tenements  have  been  provided  for  in  each  section.  The 
corridors,  including  the  staircases,  are  10  feet  wide  and  14  feel  long, 
with  an  extension  of  6  feet  leading  to  the  privies.  The  staircases  are 
well  lighted  by  windows,  and  at  night  gas  is  used  in  the  corridors. 
Each  of  the  tenements,  except  those  of  one  room  only,  has  a  private 
hallway  adjoining  the  main  corridor  and  staircase.  One  door  from  a 
tenement  opens  directly  to  the  corridor  and  stairway.  Corridors  are 
too  small  to  allow  promiscuous  mingling.  The  private  hallway  of  each 
tenement  is  considered  another  means  of  preserving  the  independence 
and  isolation  of  the  individual  family.  All  tenements,  except  those  of 
only  one  room,  have  through  circulation  from  front  to  rear.  The  latter 
also  may  have  through  circulation  by  means  of  the  corridor  windows. 
A  privy  is  provided  for  each  family.  The  privies  are  dry,  a  disinfectant 
being  used  in  the  place  of  water.  The  refuse  falls  through  a  pipe  to 
a  pit,  which  is  cleaned  once  a  month.  They  are  situated  in  an  exten¬ 
sion,  and  are  reached  from  the  corridor  on  each  floor.  No  water  has 
been  put  in  the  buildings.  Wells  are  placed  in  the  court,  to  which  all 
tenants  have  access.  An  unlimited  supply  is  available  at  all  times. 
Halls  and  courts  are  lighted  by  gas,  but  in  the  rooms  only  oil  lamps  are 
used.  An  iron  range  has  been  placed  in  each  kitchen.  A  garbage  recep¬ 
tacle  for  the  common  use  of  tenants  of  each  section  of  the  buildings  has 
been  placed  in  the  court,  and  refuse  must  be  carried  to  it  by  each  indi¬ 
vidual  family.  There  are  no  clothespresses.  Earthenware  stoves  are 
used  by  the  tenants  for  heating,  many  of  which  also  have  arrangements 
for  cooking.  Walls  are  colored  in  oil. 

As  regards  exterior  decorations  the  front  elevation,  as  displayed  in 
the  accompanying  sketch  (plan  No.  44  B),  gives  the  best  idea.  The 
general  plan  of  the  disposition  of  rooms  in  an  upper  story  of  a  portion 
of  the  block  is  likewise  shown  (plan  No.  44  0). 

Single-room  tenements  are  14  feet  1  inch  by  9  feet  10  inches.  In 
three-room  tenements  the  kitchen  is  8  feet  8  inches  by  7  feet  5  inches, 
the  living  room  14  feet  1  inch  by  12  feet  8  inches,  and  the  bedroom  14 
feet  1  inch  by  8  feet  2  inches.  In  four-room  tenements  the  kitchen  is  8 
feet  8  inches  by  8  feet  4  inches,  the  living  room  14  feet  1  inch  by  12  feet 
8  inches,  and  the  two  bedrooms  14  feet  1  inch  by  8  feet  2  inches  and  8 
feet  5  inches,  respectively.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  6  inches  high.  The 
private  hallways,  already  referred  to,  are  4  feet  11  inches  by  about  8 
feet.  The  preceding  dimensions  are  for  tenements  in  only  one  of  the 
twenty-six  houses  composing  the  block,  but  they  may  be  considered 
as  fairly  representative  of  the  whole. 

The  annual  rental  of  one-room  tenements  is  41.60  marks  ($9.90)  in  the 
fourth  story,  52  marks  ($12.38)  in  the  third  story,  and  62.40  marks 
($14.85)  in  the  second  story.  The  annual  rental  of  three-room  tenements 
is  130  marks  ($30.94)  in  the  fourth  story,  145  marks  ($34.51)  in  the  third 
story,  160  marks  ($38.08)  in  the  second  story,  and  150  marks  ($35.70)  in 
the  first  story.  The  annual  rental  of  four -room  tenements  is  155  marks 


294  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


($36.89)  in  the  fourth  story,  180  marks  ($42.84)  in  the  third  story,  and 
200  marks  ($47.60)  in  the  first  and  second  stories. 

At  the  present  time  35  house  divisions  have  been  constructed — 26  in 
one  block  and  the  remainder  in  another.  These  contain  353  tenements, 
numbering  in  all  1,206  rooms  and  6  stores.  The  346  tenements  rented 
at  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal  year  (March,  1894)  contained  309  families 
and  37  single  persons.  The  total  population  was  made  up  of  627  adults 
and  846  children,  in  all  1,473  persons.  The  average  size  of  a  family 
was  4.77  people.  The  average  air  space  per  inhabitant  was  839 £  cubic 
feet.  Four  additional  houses  are  nearing  completion  at  the  present 
time. 

There  has  been  one  epidemic  of  scarlet  fever  since  the  buildings  were 
opened  for  habitation,  resulting  in  thirteen  deaths  during  four  weeks. 

This  undertaking  is  an  individual  philanthropic  enterprise.  The 
total  amount  expended  up  to  March,  1893,  for  lots,  buildings,  and 
improvements  was  1,261,046.64  marks  ($300,129.10).  The  income  and 
expenditures  are  so  arranged  as  to  secure  a  net  profit  of  3  per  cent  on 
the  capital.  Nothing  is  written  off  annually  for  depreciation,  as  the 
increase  in  the  value  of  land  which  is  not  yet  built  upon  fully  equals 
this  sum.  The  proprietor  originally  bought  a  very  large  tract  of  land 
and  sold  part  of  it  at  a  profit,  devoting  this  to  the  building  fund.  The 
houses  were  built  cheaply,  as  no  architect’s  services  had  to  be  paid  for 
and  the  material  was  obtained  at  a  low  price.  The  net  returns  enable 
Mr.  Meyer  to  build  about  two  new  house  divisions  each  year.  The  loss 
from  empty  tenements  during  the  last  fiscal  year  amounted  to  about 
5  per  cent  of  the  actual  rental  value.  Rents  are  paid  weekly,  and  are 
collected  by  ladies  who  render  their  services  gratuitously.  Improve¬ 
ment  of  tenants  is  the  main  object  of  the  visitation.  Arrearages 
amounted  to  about  3  per  cent  of  the  rental  value  during  the  last  fiscal 
year.  Rents  are  fixed  at  about  15  per  cent  less  than  those  asked  for 
fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood;  but  even  then  14£ 
per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  tenants,  it  is  estimated,  goes  for  payment 
of  rent  Duration  of  tenancy  is  very  stable;  people  once  entering 
rarely  move  out.  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to  sublet  or  to  receive 
boarders.  The  only  special  form  of  application  required  is  a  certifica¬ 
tion  that  the  applicant  has  a  regular  means  of  subsistence. 


A. — Houses  already  built. 


B. — Lots  to  be  built  upon. 
Ground  plan. 


-Gardens. 


a. — Living  room. 


b. — Bedroom. 
Upper  floors. 


C. — kitchen. 


GOLDNEN  HOHE,  LEIPSIC,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  45. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODSL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  295 

The  occupations  and  earnings  in  1892  of  the  great  majority  of  heads  of 
tenant  families  appear  in  the  following  table: 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  METER'S  MODEL 

TENEMENT  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average  annual 
earnings. 

Rasket  maker . 

1 

2 

$185.  64 
$247.  52  to  297. 02 
222. 77  to  235. 14 

31 

Carpenters . 

12 

1 

123.  76  to  148. 51 

3 

198.  02  to  210. 39 

1 

222. 77  to  247.  52 

Drapers . . 

2 

I 

371.  28 

23 

222.  77 

Fire-dep’t  employees . 

Furriers . 

2 

15 

222. 77 
346. 53 

Gardener . . 

1 

198.  02  to  210. 39 

2 

16 

198.  02  to  222. 77 

Housekeeper . 

1 

7 

309. 40  to  321.78 

] 

247.  52 

50 

173. 26  to  185. 64 

3 

123. 76 

Laundresses . 

3 

148. 51  to  160. 89 

1 

247.  52 

6 

247. 52  to  272.  27 

Machinists . 

2 

222. 77  to  235. 14 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average  annual 
earnings. 

Market  women . . 

4 

Masons . 

12 

$247. 52  to  $309. 40 

Merchants . 

3 

Mold  era . 

3 

198.  02 

Painters . 

3 

272. 27 

Porters . 

3 

Railway  employees . 

6 

142. 80 

Saddler . 

1 

247. 52 

Sculptor . 

1 

309. 40 

Seamstresses . 

3 

49.  50 

Shoemakers . 

2 

185.  64  to  198.  02 

Stonecutters . 

2 

222.  77  to  235. 14 

Tailors . 

o 

185.  64  to  198. 02 

Tanners . 

2 

210. 39  to  222.  77 

Tile  roofers . 

5 

247. 52 

Tinners . 

6 

309. 40 

Turners . 

3 

247. 52 

Waiter . 

1 

247. 52 

Warehouse  laborer . 

1 

198.  02 

Weaver,  baud . 

1 

No  occupation  (widows). 

5 

Average  earnings  . 

231.  00 

A  kindergarten  is  open  from  9  a.  m.  in  winter  and  8  a.  m.  in  summer 
until  6  p.  m.  Dinner  is  furnished  the  children,  but  their  morning  and 
evening  meals  are  provided  by  the  parents.  A  fee  of  20  pfennigs  (5 
cents)  per  week  is  required.  If,  however,  more  than  one  child  attends 
from  the  same  family  the  eldest  pays  20  pfennigs  (5  cents)  and  the 
younger  ones  15  pfennigs  (3i  cents)  weekly.  Eighty  children  in  all 
are  in  average  attendance.  The  original  cost  of  installation  was  6,000 
marks  ($1,428). 

The  philanthropic  enterprise  of  Mr.  Meyer  is  bound  to  attain  even 
larger  proportions  than  it  has  yet  reached.  He  has  organized  a  trust 
which  is  called  the  Society  for  the  Construction  of  Cheap  Dwellings  in 
Leipsic-Lindenau.  Not  only  has  the  sympathy  and  help  of  several  gen¬ 
tlemen  been  enlisted,  but  the  cooperation  of  ladies  in  the  best  society 
of  the  city,  who  have  volunteered  to  become  rent  collectors,  has  been 
no  small  gain  to  the  enterprise.  In  a  recent  communication  Mr.  Meyer 
mentions  as  the  keynote  of  his  purpose  assistance  to  the  poor  by  helping 
them  to  avoid  misery  and  not  waiting  to  assist  them  after  they  have 
been  plunged  into  misery. 

GOLDNEN  HOHE,  LEIPSIC. 

The  tenement  houses  of  this  name  are  the  property  of  Mrs.  Emma 
Hasse.  The  general  scheme  and  typical  tenements  are  shown  in  the 
accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  45). 

A  system  of  open  construction  has  been  adopted,  the  buildings  being 
placed  in  blocks  of  two  with  a  space  of  29  feet  6  inches  between  them 
and  parking  about  16  feet  5  inches  wide  in  front  along  the  street.  On 


296  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE*COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

the  land  at  the  rear  109  gardens  have  been  laid  out,  varying  in  size 
from  517  to  1,615  square  feet.  Those  placed  nearest  the  houses  are 
rented  only  to  tenants,  while  the  more  distant  are  let  to  other  appli¬ 
cants.  Rentals  are  5  marks  ($1.19)  per  year  for  the  smallest  gardens; 
7.50  marks  ($1.79)  for  the  medium  sized  ones,  and  15  marks  ($3.57)  for 
the  largest.  In  the  center  of  this  plot  of  ground,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  there  is  an  open  area  of  43,056  square  feet  set  apart  for  a  chil¬ 
dren’s  playground;  apart,  however,  is  used  for  drying  clothes.  In  the 
former  light  gymnastic  apparatus  has  been  constructed.  It  is  in¬ 
tended  at  some  future  time  to  sell  building  lots  to  private  individuals 
on  condition  that  the  houses  built  shall  be  constructed  on  the  same 
open  system  and  that  no  rear  houses  or  workshops  shall  be  built. 

The  existing  buildings  are  five  stories  in  height,  with  cellar.  Each 
double  house  has  two  independent  staircases,  to  which  every  tenement 
has  direct  access.  The  arrangement  of  the  rooms  permits  the  greatest 
variety  in  the  size  of  apartments.  The  normal  tenement  consists  of  a 
living  room  having  two  windows,  a  bedroom  and  a  kitchen  with  one 
window  each,  and  a  private  hallway.  There  remains  then  between  two 
tenements  of  this  description  a  couple  of  independent  rooms,  which  may 
be  ren!  ed  singly  for  lodgers  or  together  as  a  two-room  tenement.  Each 
floor  may  be  divided  into  one  tenement  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen  and 
one  of  four  rooms  with  kitchen.  Tenements  of  one,  two,  three,  four,  or 
five  rooms  each  may  therefore  be  had  on  any  floor.  At  present  there 
are  two  to  three  families  on  a  floor  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  to  a  stair¬ 
case.  Up  to  1891  three  double  houses  had  been  constructed,  which 
were  divided  into  sixty- five  tenements. 

Rents  vary  from  96  marks  to  220  marks  ($22.85  to  $52.36)  per  annum, 
according  to  size  of  tenement.  Rents  are  paid  weekly  or  monthly,  at 
the  option  of  the  tenant,  but  two-thirds  of  heads  of  families  prefer  to 
pay  weekly.  Visitation  is  made  by  the  proprietress  and  some  ladies 
who  are  associated  with  her  in  an  effort  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
people.  The  management  of  the  property  is  conducted  on  the  general 
plan  of  Miss  Octavia  Hill.  Ten  laundries  and  a  mangling  machine 
have  been  provided  for  the  use  of  tenants.  A  bathroom  has  also  been 
opened  in  an  outbuilding.  As  the  property  is  situated  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  outskirts  of  the  city  a  grocery  has  been  opened  in  one  of 
the  buildings,  but  on  condition  that  intoxicating  liquors  shall  not  be 
sold  by  the  lessee  and  that  credit  shall  not  be  given  to  customers. 

SALOMON  FUND,  LEIPSIC-REUDNITZ. 

The  buildings  belonging  to  this  fund  (Salomon  Stiftung)  are  upon  a  lot 
of  44,777  square  feet;  13,695  square  feet  are  built  upon,  the  remainder 
being  open  space  in  the  form  of  a  courtyard.  The  open  space  is  partly 
paved  with  gravel  and  partly  utilized  as  garden.  The  whole  of  it  is 
given  up  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  The  buildings  consist  of  five 
stories,  with  a  total  height  of  57  feet  9  inches.  They  are  constructed 


SALOMON  FUND  BUILDINGS,  LEIPSIC-REUDNITZ,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  46  b. 


TWHlU 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


297 


of  brick.  The  thickness  of  the  walls  for  the  two  upper  stories  is  16 
inches,  the  middle  20  inches,  and  the  lower  stories  26  inches.  The 
roofing  is  of  tiles.  Staircases  are  constructed  of  oak.  Fire  walls  have 
been  placed  between  every  two  staircases,  and  extinguishing  apparatus 
connected  with  the  city  water  pipes  are  also  provided.  Special  means 
of  escape  in  case  of  fire  exist  in  the  attic,  where  iron  doors  have  been 
placed  in  the  party  walls.  There  is  a  cellar  paved  with  brick  and  used 
for  storage  purposes.  There  is  no  basement.  The  stairways  are  of 
ordinary  construction  with  a  balustered  railing  and  landings.  The 
hallways  and  staircases  are  well  lighted.  Windows  take  in  nearly  all 
of  the  wall  space  in  the  front  end  of  the  hall.  At  the  rear  end  are  four 
water-closets,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  a  brick  wall. 
The  water-closets  have  each  a  large  window  communicating  directly 
with  the  open  air.  The  main  hall  containing  the  front  staircase  is  10 
feet  6  inches  in  width.  Stairs  are  each  3  feet  11  inches  wide.  Stair 
and  corridor  floors  are  of  wood.  Stairways  are  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  the  overseer  or  janitor. 

One  door  from  every  family  lodging  opens  directljr  to  the  stairway  or 
hallway.  There  are  no  special  regulations  designed  to  prevent  promis¬ 
cuous  mingling  of  occupants  in  the  corridors  and  on  the  landings.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  each  family  has  its  own  private  hallway, 
one  door  of  which  opens  to  the  staircase,  one  to  the  kitchen,  and  one  to 
the  other  rooms.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors 
or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  No  special  means  of  ventilation  is 
provided.  Each  tenement  has  its  own  special  water-closet  which  is 
situated  inside  the  building  on  a  staircase  landing.  Each  closet  is  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  adjoining  one  by  a  board  partition.  Tenants  are  pro¬ 
vided  with  private  keys.  The  refuse  and  waste  water  go  through  a 
conduit  under  the  cellar  floor  to  the  city  sewer.  Sewers  are  disinfected 
once  a  week.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water  is  permitted.  Oil  lamps 
are  used  for  lighting  both  within  the  tenements  and  in  the  halls.  Wash¬ 
ing  and  drying  of  clothes  is  not  permitted  in  the  different  lodgings. 
Each  tenement  is  provided  with  an  iron  range  for  the  kitchen  with 
heating  pipes  and  hot  water  tanks;  living  rooms  are  provided  with 
stoves  of  earthen  tiles  with  an  iron  arrangement  for  cooking,  and  the 
bedrooms  with  iron  stoves.  The  garbage  receptacle  is  a  vaulted  pit  in 
the  yard.  Fuel  storage  exists  in  the  cellar,  each  tenant  having  a  par¬ 
ticular  compartment.  There  are  no  pantries  or  clothespresses  within 
the  dwellings.  Only  a  few  of  the  tenements  on  the  first  floor  have  inside 
window  shutters;  there  are  none  outside.  Walls  are  painted  in  oil. 
The  general  plan  of  the  buildings  and  their  external  appearance  may 
be  seen  from  the  accompanying  sketches  (plans  Nos.  46  A  and  46  B). 

The  buildings  contain  12  one-room,  12  two  room,  68  three-room,  and 
20  four-room  tenements.  In  the  one-room  tenements  the  floor  space  is 
15  feet  9  inches  by  8  feet  6  inches:  in  the  two-room  tenements  the 
kitchen  is  6  feet  7  inches  by  11  feet  3  inches,  and  the  bedrooms  11  feet 


298  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


6  inclies  by  11  feet  3  inches;  in  the  three-room  tenements  the  kitchen 
is  6  feet  7  inches  by  10  feet  2  inches,  the  living  room  11  feet  6  inches 
by  16  feet  2  inches,  and  the  bedroom  9  feet  4  inches  by  16  feet  2  inches; 
in  the  four-room  tenements  the  kitchen  is  6  feet  7  iuches  by  10  feet  2 
inches,  the  living  room  11  feet  6  inches  by  16  feet  2  inches,  and  two 
bedrooms  are  12  feet  4  inches  by  7  feet  9  inches.  The  height  of  the 
ceiling  is  9  feet  10  inches  throughout  the  different  stories. 

No  epidemics  have  taken  place  in  the  buildings  siuce  their  original 
occupation.  From  April  1,  1892,  to  January  1,  1893,  there  were  ten 
deaths  among  children  under  5  years  of  age  and  thirteen  of  adults. 
There  were  twenty-three  births  during  the  same  period  of  time,  all  of 
which  were  legitimate. 

These  buildings  were  opened  for  habitation  on  April  1, 1891.  The 
original  cost  of  the  lot  was  124,800  marks  ($29,702.40).  The  cost  of  the 
buildings  was  420,000  marks  ($99,960).  The  total  sum  received  for 
rental  during  the  fiscal  year  when  the  buildings  were  visited  was 
13,500  marks  ($3,213).  Two-room  tenements  rent  for  2.70  marks  (64 
cents)  x^er  week  in  the  front  and  2.60  marks  (62  cents)  in  the  rear. 
Three-room  tenements  rent  for  3.20  marks  (76  cents)  per  week. 

These  are  the  only  buildings  owned  by  this  fund.  Resources  came 
from  a  legacy.  The  borrowed  capital  amounts  to  60,000  marks 
($14,280),  and  was  derived  from  municipal  loan.  The  annual  rate  of 
interest  paid  on  the  borrowed  capital  is  4  per  cent.  There  was  no  loss 
of  rental  resulting  from  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  last  fiscal  year 
for  which  returns  were  given.  All  of  the  buildings  were  quite  full. 
Rents  are  paid  weekly  in  advance  and  are  called  for.  The  tenant  is 
required  to  give  three  months’  notice  of  intention  to  move.  Circum¬ 
stances  are  taken  into  account  before  ejectment  takes  place  in  case  of 
arrearage  for  rent.  But  60  marks  ($14.28)  were  lost  in  the  fiscal  year 
from  nonpayment  of  arrearages.  These  model  tenements  are  inhabited 
by  workingmen  pure  and  simple.  The  rentals  take  about  10  per  cent 
of  their  earnings.  Rents  for  other  dwellings  of  a  similar  nature  are 
about  50  per  cent  higher. 

When  applications  for  accommodation  are  made,  the  circumstances 
of  the  applicant  are  investigated,  so  that  only  the  poorer  working 
people  may  be  taken.  Tenants  are  neither  allowed  to  sublet  nor  to 
receive  boarders. 

There  are  about  seventy-five  families  in  the  buildings*  The  remain¬ 
ing  tenements  are  inhabited  by  spinsters. 

As  yet  the  only  annexes  are  one  bath  house  and  thirteen  laundries, 
but  a  chapel  and  creche  are  about  to  be  constructed.  The  cost  of  the 
baths  was  1,400  marks  ($333.20).  Tenants  are  charged  10  pfennigs 
(2£  cents)  each  time  they  use  them.  The  bath  house  contains  three 
bathrooms.  Hot  and  cold  water  and  shower  baths  are  provided.  It 
is  open  only  on  Saturdays. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


299 


The  laundries  have  enameled  iron  tubs  and  the  floors  are  of  asphalt. 
Tenants  are  required  to  make  arrangements  with  the  janitor  as  to  the 
days  for  which  they  wish  the  laundries  reserved.  A  drying  room  has 
been  placed  over  the  laundries  in  an  outhouse,  and  a  charge  of  10 
pfennigs  (2£  cents)  per  day  is  made  for  its  use.  There  is  a  mangling 
machine  in  the  same  building  for  the  use  of  which  a  fee  of  5  pfennigs 
(1£  cents)  per  hour  is  charged. 

The  income  from  the  legacy  of  Frau  Hedwig  von  ITolstein,  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  a  sufficient  sum,  will  be  used  to  perpetuate  the  work  of  the 
trust  in  the  erection  of  a  new  building. 

COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  ASSOCIATION,  DRESDEN. 

The  most  modern  buildings  of  this  company  (Gemeinniitziger  Bau- 
verein)  are  in  Friedrichstrasse,  Nos.  55, 57,  and  50.  The  frontage  of  the 
lot  is  about  160  feet  9  inches  and  the  depth  about  206  feet  8  inches. 
The  total  area  is  33,476  square  feet,  10,015  square  feet,  about  30  per 
cent,  of  which  is  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  found  in  the  rear,  and 
includes  small  courts  between  the  front  and  rear  wings  of  the  build¬ 
ings.  Almost  all  of  it  is  unpaved.  It  is  given  to  the  free  use  of  occu¬ 
pants  for  walks  and  gardens. 

The  buildings  are  of  stone  and  comprise  five  stories,  and  the  total 
height  is  62  feet  4  inches.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  is  33 
inches  at  the  base  and  16  inches  at  the  roof.  The  roofing  is  composed 
of  tiles,  and  the  staircases  are  constructed  of  stone.  Aside  from  this 
the  only  other  protection  from  fire  are  two  connections  for  hose  in  each 
house  division  of  the  buildings. 

Cellars  are  found  only  under  the  front  half  of  the  buildings,  except 
in  the  cases  of  laundries.  They  are  paved  with  bricks  and  are  used  by 
tenants  for  storage  of  coal  and  provisions.  There  is  no  basement. 

The  staircases,  corridors,  and  privies  are  in  narrow  sections  con¬ 
necting  the  front  and  rear  parts  of  the  buildings.  The  middle  one 
of  the  connecting  structures  is  25  feet  wide,  and  the  two  at  the  ends 
are  20  feet  wide.  The  front  and  rear  parts  of  the  buildings  thus  con¬ 
nected  are  about  25  feet  apart.  This  arrangement  allows  for  well  lighted 
and  well  ventilated  staircases,  corridors,  and  privies,  and  removes  the 
latter  as  effectually  as  if  they  were  in  an  extension  at  the  rear.  The 
privies  in  the  buildings  are  midway  between  the  two  parts  and  oppo¬ 
site  the  staircases,  being  separated  from  the  latter  by  a  corridor  10  feet 
4  inches  wide  in  the  central  building  and  6  feet  6  inches  wide  in  each 
of  the  side  buildings,  and  running  from  the  front  to  the  rear  parts  in 
each  case.  On  the  ground  floor  the  corridors  extend  through  the  front 
aud  rear  parts,  from  the  street  to  the  rear  yard.  The  staircases  are  each 
4.J  feet  wide,  and  each  of  the  privies  occupies  a  space  4£  feet  by  54  feet, 
there  being  four  on  each  landing.  They  are  reached  by  means  of  two 
small  anterooms  adjoining  the  main  corridors  on  each  floor,  and  are 


300  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

in  no  way  in  direct  connection  with  the  dwellings,  the  dwellings  on 
each  floor  opening  by  means  of  private  corridors  to  the  main  central 
hall. 

The  halls  have  tiled  and  cemented  floors,  and  the  walls  are  wainscoted 
about  3 £  feet  high;  above  that  they  are  painted  in  oil.  One  door  of 
each  tenement  opens  on  the  main  corridor,  but  two  rooms  communicate 
with  the  private  hallway.  There  is  no  mingling  of  occupants  whatever 
in  the  hallways,  and  regulations  against  it  would  be  superfluous.  The 
private  hallways,  shut  off  by  doors  from  the  main  corridor,  have  a  ten¬ 
dency  to  isolate  individual  families.  Every  room  communicates  directly, 
either  by  doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air,  and  each  tenement  has 
free  circulation  from  front  to  rear.  There  are  lodgings  for  four  families 
on  each  floor.  Each  one  is  provided  with  a  privy  outside,  and  con¬ 
veniently  located  in  the  manner  just  described.  Six  persons,  on  the 
average,  use  a  privy.  A  dicharge  pipe  in  each  privy  runs  to  a  pit  at 
the  bottom.  The  seats  are  covered  with  lids.  Tenants  are  required  to 
wash  and  scrub  the  bowls  under  the  seats.  Each  house  has  a  sink  in 
its  private  hallway  connected  by  a  trap  with  the  sewer.  Water  is  piped 
into  the  buildings,  and  the  supply  is  unlimited.  Heating  is  done  by 
stoves.  Oil  lamps  furnish  lighting  for  tenants,  and  gas  is  provided  in  - 
the  hallways.  Laundry  work  is  not  permitted  in  the  different  tene¬ 
ments.  Washing  is  done  in  special  rooms  set  apart  in  the  cellar,  and 
drying  is  done  in  the  yard  or  attic.  The  aecomj)anying  plans  show 
the  front  elevation  of  the  buildings  and  the  general  disposition  of  the 
tenements  (plans  Nos.  47  A,  47  B,  and  47  0). 

The  private  hallways  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  kitchen,  and  in  many 
cases  the  tenants  use  them  as  such,  the  flues  being  in  a  position  to  per¬ 
mit  it,  and  devote  the  kitchen  space  to  other  purposes.  A  cooking 
range  has  been  provided  in  each  tenement.  Fuel  storage  for  every 
tenement  exists  in  the  cellar,  and  a  garbage  receptacle  for  each  is 
placed  in  the  yard.  There  are  no  pantries  or  clothespresses.  All  the 
larger  rooms  have  china  stoves  for  heating,  which  have  appliances  for 
cooking  whenever  that  is  necessary.  Lattice  shutters  are  provided  on 
the  first  floor.  All  windows  have  double  sashes.  There  are  no  bal¬ 
conies,  but  windows  on  the  ground  floor  have  iron  gratings.  The  walls 
and  ceilings  are  painted  in  plain  colors. 

The  ceilings  are  9  feet  6  inches,  9  feet  10  inches,  and  10  feet  6  inches 
in  height.  The  private  hallways  and  kitchens  in  three-room  tenements 
are  each  about  7  feet  6  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches,  the  living  rooms  14 
feet  6  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches,  and  the  bedrooms  14  feet  6  inches  by 
7  feet  10  inches.  In  four-room  tenements  the  kitchen  is  usually  smaller, 
and  the  living  room  and  bedrooms  are  about  the  same  size  as  in  the 
three-room  tenements.  The  existence  of  a  small  private  hallway  permits 
an  arrangement  which  is  frequently  made,  namely,  separating  the  tene¬ 
ment  into  one  of  three  rooms  and  a  hallway  and  another  of  one  room 
and  a  private  hallway.  Forty-six  hundred  cubic  feet  represent  the 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  ASSOCIATION,  DRESDEN,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  47  a. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


301 


average  air  space  in  three-room  tenements,  and  from  5,390  to  7,037 
cubic  feet  that  in  four-room  tenements.  The  average  air  space  per 
occupant  in  one  of  the  large  tenement  buildings  was  78G  cubic  feet 
during  the  year  1891. 

The  rentals  of  three-room  tenements  are  200  marks  ($47.60)  per  an¬ 
num  on  the  ground  floor,  220  marks  ($52.36)  on  the  second  floor,  212 
marks  ($50.46)  on  the  third  floor,  200  marks  ($47.60)  on  the  fourth 
floor,  and  160  marks  ($38.08)  on  the  fifth  floor.  Four-room  tenements 
rent  for  from  272  to  316  marks  ($64.74  to  $75.21)  on  the  second  floor, 
260  to  302  marks  ($61.88  to  $71.88)  on  the  third  floor,  248  to  288  marks 
($59.02  to  $68.54)  on  the  fourth  floor,  and  200  to  230  marks  ($47.50  to 
$54.74)  on  the  fifth  floor. 

There  have  been  no  epidemics  in  the  buildings  since  they  were  con¬ 
structed,  and  the  death  rate  is  exceptionally  low.  There  have  been  no 
illegitimate  births. 

The  first  buildings  constructed  by  this  company  were  opened  for  habi¬ 
tation  October  1, 1888.  The  original  cost  was  40,787.92  marks  ($9,707.52) 
for  land  and  185,1S8.76  marks  ($44,074.92)  for  buildings. 

When  visited  there  were  two  groups  of  buildings,  containing  68  three- 
room  tenements,  48  four-room  tenements,  and  4  stores.  During  1892  a 
third  group  was  completed. 

The  enterprise  is  conducted  by  a  cooperative  building  association, 
with  a  share  capital  of  600, 0U0  marks  ($142,800).  An  annual  dividend 
of  4  per  cent  has  been  paid  from  the  commencement.  The  by-laws  for¬ 
bid  the  distribution  of  profits  above  44  per  cent.  A  reserve  of  17,203.40 
marks  ($4,094.41)  had  been  set  aside  up  to  the  end  of  the  last  fiscal 
year  for  which  returns  were  available.  It  is  intended  to  allow  this  sum 
to  accumulate  from  year  to  year  until  the  amount  is  sufficiently  large  to 
undertake  the  construction  of  new  model  tenements. 

The  total  amount  borrowed  on  mortgages  is  70,000  marks  ($16,660). 
Interest  at  the  rate  of  3$  per  cent  is  paid  on  40,000  marks  ($9,520),  the 
amount  first  borrowed.  No  statement  is  made  in  the  reports  of  the 
association  regarding  the  interest  paid  on  the  remaining  30,000  marks 
($7,140),  which  was  borrowed  later. 

The  taxes,  as  reported  in  1892,  were  as  follows : 


State  rent  and  income  tax .  $69. 50 

State  land  tax .  55.  70 

School  tax .  128. 77 

City  land  tax .  126. 83 

Communal  income  tax .  23. 99 


The  total  sum  received  for  rental  during  the  last  fiscal  year  for  which 
reports  have  been  received  was  42,682  marks  ($10,158.32).  The  total 
estimated  value  of  lands  and  buildings  is  687,909.17  marks  ($163,722.38). 
There  were  no  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  year.  Eents  are  paid 
quarterly.  The  basis  upon  which  rents  are  calculated  is  about  10 
cents  per  square  foot  of  space,  including  walls  and  partitions,  per  year, 


302  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

on  the  ground  and  fourth  floors;  for  the  second  floor  10  per  cent  more 
is  added;  for  the  third  floor  5  per  cent  more  is  added.  A  deduction  of 
15  per  cent  is  made  from  this  for  the  fifth  floor. 

The  rentals  are  called  for,  and  must  all  be  paid  in  advance.  Six 
months’  notice  is  required  from  tenants  intending  to  leave.  A  teuant 
may  remain  in  arrears  of  rent  seventeen  days  before  being  ejected. 
There  were  no  arrearages  of  rent  during  the  last  fiscal  year.  No  change 
in  the  price  of  rent  has  taken  place  since  the  enterprise  began,  and 
accommodation  can  be  had  about  25  per  cent  lower  in  these  buildings 
than  in  fairly  similar  ones  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  calculated  that 
the  average  earnings  of  heads  of  families  are  about  1,000  marks  ($238) 
a  year,  and  20  per  cent  of  this  represents,  in  round  numbers,  the  rent 
charged. 

The  average  duration  of  tenancy  has  been  long;  as  a  rule,  occupiers 
are  loath  to  leave.  They  are  allowed  to  sublet  to  single  persons,  but 
overcrowding  is  guarded  against.  Only  such  rooms  as  have  separate 
entrances  may  be  sublet.  Boarders  may  be  taken.  There  is  no  regu¬ 
lar  form  of  application  from  a  would-be  tenant.  As  long  as  the  demand 
for  rooms  exceeds  the  supply,  as  is  now  the  case,  only  stockholders  will 
be  admitted  as  tenants,  selection  being  made  by  lot. 

The  regulations  are  as  follows : 

Fire  and  light. — Inflammable  substances  can  not  be  kept  in  the  house. 
The  attics  can  not  be  entered  at  night  except  in  case  of  extreme  neces¬ 
sity,  and  then  only  with  a  closed  lantern. 

Ashes  and  sweepings  must  be  emptied  in  the  pit  provided  therefor, 
and  the  pit  must  be  immediately  closed.  Straw  and  other  easily  inflam¬ 
mable  matter  can  not  be  emptied  there. 

Water. — Carelessness  in  handling  the  hydrant  and  the  wasting  of 
water  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  from  30  to  100  marks  ($7.14  to  $23.80), 
regardless  of  the  fine  that  may  be  imposed  by  the  government  authori¬ 
ties.  During  cold  weather  windows  near  water  pipes  must  not  be  left 
open. 

Halls,  etc. — Halls  and  stairways  must  be  swept  daily  before  9  a.  m. 
and  scrubbed  every  Saturday.  Tenants  must  take  weekly  turns  in 
doing  this,  or  they  may  agree  to  employ  some  one  to  do  so. 

Court. — The  cleaning  or  beating  of  clothes,  covers,  carpets, furniture, 
etc.,  can  only  be  done  in  the  court  from  7  to  10  a.  m.  and  from  7  to  9  p.  m. 
Articles  can  not  be  shaken  or  thrown  out  of  windows.  Obstructions 
can  not  be  placed  in  the  court,  hallways,  or  other  common  passages. 

Domestic  animals. — Without  special  permission  of  the  owner  no 
domestic  animals  can  be  kept  on  the  premises.  If  kept,by  permission 
and  they  prove  objectionable  they  must  be  removed. 

Front  door. — The  building  is  opened  at  5  a.  m.  in  summer  and  at 
6  a.  m.  in  winter,  and  closed  at  10  p.  m.  Persons  entering  between  10 
and  12  p.  m.  may  be  required  by  the  janitor  to  pay  10  pfennigs  (2£ 
cents),  and  if  entering  after  midnight  20  pfennigs  (4f  cents). 

Foises. — Excessive  noises  are  forbidden,  and  after  10  p.  m.  all  noisy 
occupations  must  cease.  Before  7  a.  m.  and  after  10  p.  m.  neither 
music  nor  singing  is  allowed.  Slamming  of  doors,  noises  of  children, 
as  well  as  quarrels  of  all  kinds  in  the  building  or  the  court  must  be 
avoided. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS.  303 

Unnecessary  standing  around  in  the  doorways,  balls,  and  stairways  is 
prohibited. 

Persons  carrying  on  any  trade  can  only  hang  out  signs  when  author¬ 
ized  by  the  proprietor,  and  the  latter  determines  the  size  and  the  place 
where  the  sign  is  to  be  exposed. 

A  tenant  is  selected  as  janitor,  which  position  is  considered  one  of 
special  honor.  He  receives  only  20  marks  ($4.76)  a  year  for  his  services. 
His  duties  are  to  keep  order  and  to  attend  to  lighting.  The  former 
task  is  not  a  very  difficult  one,  however,  as  the  tenants,  being  them¬ 
selves  part  owners  of  the  property,  maintain  the  best  of  order. 

Every  house  has  a  laundry  in  the  cellar,  each  tenant  having  the  use 
of  it  one  day  per  month.  The  janitor  receives  10  pfennigs  (2J  cents) 
from  each  tenant  using  the  laundry  as  a  fee  for  keeping  it  in  order. 
Strict  regulations  exist  regarding  the  care  of  utensils,  and  also  pre¬ 
scribing  the  day  when  each  tenant  may  use  the  laundry. 

Laundries  are  equipped  with  an  oven  and  an  enameled  iron  kettle 
and  wash  tub.  The  floors  are  paved  with  cement. 

There  is  a  mangling  house  containing  a  mangling  machine,  shelves, 
etc.,  for  the  use  of  all  tenants. 

There  is  also  an  outhouse  for  the  use  of  persons  taking  washing  by 
*  the  day  or  for  those  desiring  to  wash  their  articles  more  frequently 
than  once  in  every  twenty-eight  days.  An  extra  fee  is  charged  for  the 
use  of  this  accessory. 

SAINT  JOHNS  SOCIETY,  DRESDEN. 

The  model  tenements  belonging  to  the  Saint  John’s  Society  ( Johannes - 
Verein)  are  located  at  27  to  31  Sebnitzerstrasse.  The  frontage  of 
the  lot  upon  which  they  are  constructed  is  143  feet  8  inches  and  the 

I  depth  203  feet  9  inches.  The  total  area  of  the  lot  is  35,952  square  feet. 
Between  the  front  and  rear  buildings  which  have  been  erected  on  the 
lot  there  is  an  open  space,  which  is  paved  with  stones.  A  portion  of  it 
is  set  aside  for  playgrounds  and  the  rest  for  drying  clothes. 

The  buildings  are  of  five  stories,  and  are  62  feet  4  inches  high.  They 
are  constructed  of  brick.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  is  19 £ 
inches  for  the  first  and  second  stories  and  15f  inches  for  the  three  upper 
stories.  The  roofing  is  of  tile  and  the  staircases  of  stone.  The  build¬ 
ings  have  a  cellar,  which  is  partitioned  off  into  cells  for  storage  pur¬ 
poses.  A  certain  space  is  reserved  for  the  laundries  and  another  for 
baby  carriages. 

Each  front  building  is  composed  of  a  front  and  a  rear  part,  connected 
by  a  neck  which  contains  the  staircase,  privies,  and  corridors.  This 
leaves  a  small  court  of  about  23  feet  square  surrounded  by  the  stair¬ 
case  structures  and  the  front  and  rear  parts  of  the  buildings.  Two 
windows  are  situated  in  each  side  of  the  connecting  structure  and  on 
eveiy  floor,  whereby  light  and  ventilation  are  furnished  to  the  staircases, 
etc.  Four  tenements  are  entered  from  the  landing  on  the  first  floor, 
two  being  in  the  front  and  two  in  the  rear  part,  and  six  tenements  on 


304  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR 

each  landing  of  the  upper  floors,  three  in  the  front  ana  three  in  the 
rear  part.  The  corridors  in  the  connecting  structures  are  common  to 
all  tenants,  but  adjoining  these  each  tenement  has  a  small  private 
corridor  or  hallway. 

The  rear  buildings  are  constructed  on  a  different  plan,  the  corridor 
and  staircase  being  in  the  center  of  the  rear  half  of  each  building  and 
the  privies  in  a  rear  extension,  and  reached  from  the  corridors.  Three 
tenements  are  entered  from  the  landing  on  each  floor.  Windows  in 
the  rear  give  light  and  ventilation  to  the  stairways. 

The  accompanying  sketch  shows  the  front  elevation  and  ground  floor 
arrangement  of  the  buildings  (plan  No.  48). 

The  tenements  are  not  self-contained.  The  privies  are  located  as 
already  described,  and  six  families  use  four  of  them.  The  privies  dis¬ 
charge  into  a  pit  which  is  underground  and  thoroughly  waterproof, 
being  lined  with  cement.  The  privies  are  frequently  disinfected  and 
the  pit  is  emptied  every  six  months.  Privies  are  ventilated  by  windows 
communicating  with  the  open  air  and  by  the  discharge  pipe,  which  is 
open  above  the  roof.  Waste  water  runs  into  the  city  sewers.  A  sink 
with  an  enameled  basin  and  properly  trapped  is  found  in  each  kitchen 
in  the  front  buildings  and  on  the  staircase  landings  in  the  rear  build¬ 
ings.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water  is  allowed.  Halls  and  corridors 
are  not  heated.  Within  the  tenements  the  tenants  use  silver-gray  tile 
stoves.  There  is  gas  on  the  staircases  but  none  within  the  tenements, 
in  the  latter  oil  lamps  being  used  for  lighting  purposes.  Every  room 
opens  directly,  either  by  door  or  windows,  to  the  external  air,  except 
two  small  rooms  in  the  smallest  tenements  on  each  floor  of  the  front 
buildings,  these  opening  on  the  main  corridors.  Washing  is  only 
allowed  to  be  done  in  the  laundries,  and  clothes  drying  in  the  attic  or 
a  portion  of  the  court.  There  is  a  mangling  machine  for  the  use  of 
tenants.  A  cooking  range  of  silver-gray  tiles  with  boiler  and  heating 
pipes  is  placed  in  each  kitchen.  Fuel  storage  is  in  the  cellar.  There 
is  a  garbage  receptacle  in  the  yard.  Pantries  and  clothespresses  have 
not  been  provided.  There  are  no  window  shutters,  but  double  windows 
are  found  throughout.  Each  tenant  has  his  own  doorbell.  Interim 
decorations  are  meager.  There  are  no  baths  or  social  annexes. 

In  the  front  buildings  two-room  tenements  contain  kitchens  which 
are  12  feet  9  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches,  and  bedrooms  13  feet  7  inches 
by  12  feet  6  inches;  three-room  tenements  contain  kitchens  which  are 
12  feet  9  inches  by  10  feet  2  inches,  living  rooms  12  feet  9  inches  by 
8  feet  2  inches,  and  bedrooms  13  feet  7  inches  by  12  feet  10  inches; 
four-room  tenements  contain  kitchens  and  living  rooms  which  are 
generally  the  same  as  in  the  previous  class,  while  the  bedrooms  aver¬ 
age  a  little  smaller.  The  ceilings  are  11  feet  6  inches  in  height  on  the 
first  floor,  9  feet  10  inches  on  the  second  and  third,  and  8  feet  10  inches 
on  the  fourth  and  fifth. 


Gj  r*um£r 


y 

Qo^*~+- 


Co  u  y  t. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  SAINT  JOHN'S  SOCIETY,  DRESDEN,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  48. 


CHAPTER  IX. — MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


305 


There  are  a  few  one-room  tenements  in  the  rear  buildings,  and  these 
rent  for  from  1.10  marks  to  1.00  marks  (20  cents  to  38  cents)  per  week, 
according  to  the  story  in  which  the  room  is  situated.  Two-room  tene¬ 
ments  are  not  found  in  the  first  story  of  the  buildings;  in  the  second 
and  third  stories  they  rent  for  from  1.85  marks  to  2.35  marks  (41  cents 
to  56  cents)  per  week,  in  the  fourth  story  for  from  1.00  marks  to  1.85 
marks  (38  cents  to  44  cents),  and  in  the  fifth  story  for  from  1.35  marks 
to  1.60  marks  (32  cents  to  38  cents).  Three-room  tenements  in  the  first 
story  rent  for  3.95  marks  (94  cents)  per  week,  in  the  second  story  for 
from  3.20  marks  to  4.20  marks  (76  cents  to  $1),  in  the  third  story  for 
from  3.20  marks  to  3.95  marks  (76  cents  to  94  cents),  in  the  fourth  story 
for  from  2.95  marks  to  3.70  marks  (70  cents  to  88  cents),  and  in  the  fifth 
story  for  from  2.45  marks  to  3.20  marks  (58  cents  to  76  cents).  Four- 
room  tenements  in  the  first  story  rent  for  from  4  marks  to  4.75  marks 
(95  cents  to  $1.13)  per  week,  in  the  second  story  for  from  4.25  marks  to 
5  marks  ($1.01  to  $1.19),  in  the  third  story  for  from  4  marks  to  4.75 
marks  (95  cents  to  $1.13),  in  the  fourth  story  for  from  3.50  marks  to 
4.25  marks  (83  cents  to  $1.01),  and  in  the  fifth  story  for  from  3  marks 
to  3.75  marks  (71  cents  to  89  cents).  These  prices  include  water  serv- 
i  ice  and  hall  lighting.  The  total  sum  received  for  rent,  as  stated  in  a 
report  issued  in  1892,  exclusive  of  the  water  service  and  hall  lighting, 
was  22,000  marks  ($5,236). 

During  the  last  fiscal  year  giving  returns  but  five  persons  died ;  three 
of  them  were  children  under  5  years  of  age.  There  were  twelve  births 
during  the  same  period,  all  of  which  were  legitimate. 

These  buildings  were  opened  for  habitation  in  April,  1890.  The  actual 
cost  of  the  land  was  44,200  marks  ($10,519.60),  and  of  the  buildings 
345,800  marks  ($82,300.40).  The  buildings  were  erected  by  the  Saint 
John’s  Society  as  a  part  of  its  philanthropic  work.  The  money  needed 
for  payment  of  land  and  construction  was  all  loaned  to  the  society  by 
individual  members,  who  took  as  security  mortgages  upon  the  property. 
There  is,  therefore,  uo  share  capital;  and  of  the  income  3J  per  cent  is 
paid  as  interest  to  these  creditors.  The  balance  goes  for  maintenance, 
taxes,  and  various  other  expenses,  and  whatever  is  left  over  after 
meeting  these  demands  goes  to  the  sinking  and  renewal  funds.  From 
L  to  2  per  cent  has  been  written  off  the  value  of  the  buildings  each 
year  since  the  enterprise  began.  Kents  are  paid  weekly,  and  the  col¬ 
lecting  is  done  through  lady  agents.  Arrearages  of  rent  have  so  far 
been  unknown,  and  only  one  ejectment  has  taken  place  during  two  and 
one-half  years.  Since  the  opening  of  the  buildings  a  slight  reduction 
in  the  rent  charge  has  been  made  in  the  case  of  twenty-four  tenements, 
namely,  25  pfennigs  (6  cents)  per  week.  Rents  in  these  model  tene¬ 
ments  are  from  25  to  30  per  cent  lower  than  for  fairly  similar  accommo¬ 
dation  in  the  neighborhood. 

H.  Ex.  354 - 20 


I 


306  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

Tlie  occupations  and  average  weekly  earnings  of  103  heads  of  tenant 
families  in  the  model  tenement  buildings  belonging  to  the  Saint  John’s 
Society  of  Dresden  are  as  follows : 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  WEEKLY  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  TENANT  FAMILIES  IN  THE 
TENEMENTS  OF  THE  SAINT  JOHN’S  SOCIETY,  DRESDEN. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

2 

$4.  76 

4 

$5. 95 

2 

3.93 

Masons . . 

2 

'5.  95 

1 

4.  28 

Master  comb  maker . 

1 

5. 71 

1 

3.  33 

Merchant . 

1 

1 

3. 67 

Messengers . 

2 

3. 57 

1 

6.24 

Post-office  employee . 

1 

4.58 

1 

4.28 

Potter . 

1 

9.  52 

2 

4.  76 

Retired  man . . . 

1 

4.58 

Conductors . 

2 

4.58 

Seamstresses . . . 

4 

1. 19 

Government  employee . .. 

1 

4.58  1 

Shoemakers . . . 

3 

3.57 

Knitter . 

1 

.  524 

Tinner . 

1 

5.  95 

20 

4.  28 

Tool-maker’s  helper . 

1 

5. 95 

Letter  carriers . 

4 

4.58 

Various  occupations  (widows). 

42 

1. 74 

About  19  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  these  people,  it  is  calculated, 
go  for  rent.  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to  sublet,  nor  may  they  receive 
boarders.  There  are  no  special  regulations.  Tenants  are  expected 
to  keep  clean  and  orderly.  The  janitor  is  an  old  soldier  who  is  given 
free  rent  and  paid  500  marks  ($119)  for  his  services.  Two-thirds  of  the 
heads  of  families  living  in  these  buildings  are  located  within  one-lialf 
a  mile  from  their  places  of  work,  one-sixth  of  them  from  one-half  a  mile 
to  one  mile,  and  the  other  sixth  from  1  to  2  miles. 

SAVINGS  AND  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  HANOVER. 

The  model  tenement  building  of  this  company  selected  for  description 
is  located  in  Listerstrasse.  The  lot  has  a  frontage  of  46  feet  11  inches, 
and  contains  2,463  square  feet  of  area.  Of  this,  1,615  square  feet,  or  65 
per  cent,  have  been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  in  the  rear  and  is 
paved.  It  is  given  up  to  the  free  use  of  occupants,  and  is  utilized  as  a 
playground  for  children. 

The  building  is  of  brick  and  has  four  stories.  The  floors  rest  on 
wooden  beams.  The  thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  is  20  inches  at  the 
ground  floor  and  15  inches  at  the  upper  story.  The  roof  is  constructed 
of  tiles.  Staircases  are  of  oak  supported  on  iron  beams.  Chimneys 
are  lined  with  fire  bricks.  There  are  no  special  means  of  escape  pro¬ 
vided  in  case  of  fire.  There  is  a  cellar  to  the  building,  which  is  paved 
with  bricks  and  utilized  for  storage  of  coal  and  provisions.  The  stair¬ 
case  is  in  the  middle  of  the  house  and  is  reached  by  a  hallway  leading 
from  the  front  door.  This  hallway  is  about  4  feet  wide  by  14  feet  long. 
The  staircase  corridor  is  about  8  feet  wide  and  16  feet  long.  The  steps 
are  3  feet  7  inches  wide,  and  have  halfway  landings.  From  these  lat¬ 
ter  the  privies  are  reached  directly,  as  they  are  in  an  extension  at  the 
rear.  Staircases  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  janitor.  Not  more 
than  one  door  in  a  family  lodging  opens  directly  upon  the  stairway  or 
hallway. 

There  are  no  special  regulations  with  a  view  of  preventing  the 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  SAVINGS  AND  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  HANOVER,  GERMANY. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


307 


promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants  in  hallways  or  corridors.  The  only 
provision  for  preserving  independence  and  isolation  of  the  individual 
family  is  the  private  hallway  which  joins  the  staircase  corridor,  and  is 
within  the  tenement.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by 
doors  or  windows,  with  the  open  air.  All  rooms  but  one  of  each  tene¬ 
ment  have  through  ventilation.  There  are  transoms  over  the  doors. 
Each  room  has  an  opening  at  the  back  for  ventilation.  Privies  are 
provided  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  every  two  families.  The  refuse  falls 
through  a  shaft  to  a  pit  below.  There  is  no  water  in  the  privies.  They 
are  ventilated  by  windows  and  a  special  shaft.  Water  has  been  pro¬ 
vided  in  each  kitchen,  and  the  supply  is  unlimited.  Sewers  are  not 
yet  made.  All  sinks  have  traps.  Heating  is  done  with  stoves  and 
lighting  with  oil  lamps.  Washing  is  done  in  the  cellar  and  drying  in 
the  attic.  A  cooking  range  has  been  placed  in  every  kitchen.  Each 
tenant  has  his  own  receptacle  for  garbage.  The  city  service  removes 
the  garbage  periodically.  In  lieu  of  a  pantry  a  plate  shelf  has  been 
placed  in  each  kitchen.  All  living  rooms  are  furnished  with  orna¬ 
mental  iron  stoves.  The  walls  are  papered  and  the  ceilings  are  painted 
in  oil.  The  exterior  of  the  building  is  very  plain.  The  front  elevation 
and  floor  plans  are  given  (plan  No.  49). 

The  particular  model  building  which  is  being  described  contains  8 
four-room  tenements.  The  private  hallway  is  4  feet  9  inches  by  8  feet 
6  inches,  the  kitchen  is  8  feet  6  inches  by  11  feet  10  inches,  the  living 
room  12  feet  6  inches  by  13  feet  9  inches,  and  the  two  bedrooms  9  feet 
6  inches  by  14  feet  9  inches,  respectively.  The  ceilings  are  10  feet  2 
inches  high.  These  are  the  average  dimensions.  Slight  variations 
occur,  but  they  are  not  sufficient  to  vitiate  the  figures. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lot  upon  which  this  building  stands  was 
3,100  marks  ($737.80);  the  building  itself  cost  21,280  marks  ($5,064.64). 
The  yearly  rental  of  four-room  tenements  is  180  marks  ($42.84)  in  the 
first  and  fourth  stories,  200  marks  ($47.60)  in  the  second  story,  and  190 
marks  ($45.22)  in  the  third  story.  The  building  was  opened  for  habi¬ 
tation  October  1, 1886. 

No  epidemics  have  taken  place  since  the  society’s  buildings  were 
opened  for  habitation.  Seven  deaths  of  children  under  5  years  of  age 
have  taken  place  in  four  years,  and  ten  among  occupants  of  all  ages. 
There  have,  been  no  illegitimate  births  in  the  six  years  counting  from 
the  opening  period.  Neither  have  there  been  any  criminal  convictions 
among  tenants. 

The  total  number  of  buildings  now  owned  by  this  society  is  sixteen. 
They  contain  11  three-room  tenements,  each  renting  at  from  120  to  155 
marks  ($28.56  to  $36.89)  annually;  115  four-room  tenements,  each  rent¬ 
ing  at  from  160  to  210  marks  ($38.08  to  $49.98)  annually,  and  1  five-room 
tenement,  renting  at  255  marks  ($60.69)  annually.  Besides  these  there 
are  five  tenements  with  stores. 

The  total  amount  of  the  present  share  capital  is  486,000  marks 
($115,668);  266,873.74  marks  ($63,515.95)  had  been  paid  in  at  the  time 


308  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


tlie  last  fiscal  reports  were  available,  1891.  The  company  is  a  coopera¬ 
tive  society  with  limited  liability.  Shares  have  a  value  of  300  marks 
($71.40),  and  are  payable  in  weekly  installments  of  30  pfennigs  (7  cents). 
The  rate  of  annual  dividend  paid  upon  share  capital  since  the  society 
was  founded  has  been  4  per  cent  on  membership  contributions  actually 
made.  There  is  a  reserve  of  2,765.90  marks  ($658.28)  and  a  contingent 
fund  of  4,778.65  marks  ($1,137.32).  The  reserve  and  dividend  counted 
together  indicate  net  profits  of  4.J  per  cent  annually  from  the  beginning. 

The  borrowed  capital  is  as  follows : 


Amount  deposited  by  members  as  savings . . . .  $24, 169.08 

Loans  from  members .  3, 853. 43 

Loan  on  land . - .  23, 800. 00 

Loan  on  mortgages .  44, 601. 20 


State,  city,  water,  and  sewer  taxes  amount  to  1,035.03  marks  ($246.34) 
annually,  or  about  2  marks  (48  cents)  per  room.  The  total  estimated 
value  of  lands  and  buildings  is  about  495,000  marks  ($117,810),  or  about 
25  per  cent  more  than  actual  cost. 

The  total  sum  received  from  rent  during  the  fiscal  year  1891  was 
21,216.25  marks  ($5,049.47).  Only  shareholders  can  be  admitted  as 
tenants,  and  as  there  are  about  five  times  as  many  applicants  as  there 
are  places,  there  can  be  no  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  lodgings. 
The  buildings  are  always  full,  and  tenants  are  selected  by  lot  and  from 
among  shareholders.  Rents  are  paid  at  the  office  when  due,  and  not 
in  advance.  Three  months’  notice  must  be  given  by  a  tenant  of  inten¬ 
tion  to  leave.  Arrearages  are  not  allowed.  Rentals  have  remained  as 
originally  fixed.  Similar  accommodations  in  the  neighborhood  rent  for 
about  one-third  more  than  the  model  tenements. 

A  census  of  occupations  and  earnings  of  heads  of  families  in  the 
Listerstrasse  houses  gives  the  following  results : 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  DAILY  EARNINGS  OP  HEADS  OP  FAMILIES  IN  TENEMENTS  OF 
THE  SAVINGS  AND  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  HANOVER. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

daily 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

daily 

earnings. 

1 

3 

$0.71 

5 

$0.71 

Porters . . 

2 

.48 

1 

.71 

Printer . . 

1 

.71 

1 

.71 

Seamstress . - . . . 

1 

.36 

1 

a  285.  60 

2 

1 

O 357. 00 

2 

.57 

2 

.57 

3 

.71 

9 

.57 

Tinner . . 

1 

.71 

4 

1 

.71 

5 

.71 

Weavers . 

4 

2 

3 

a  Per  year. 


From  20  to  25  per  cent  of  earnings  of  heads  of  families  goes  for  rent. 
Tenants  may  sublet  and  receive  boarders  with  special  permission  from 
the  corporation.  No  special  form  of  application  is  required,  as  all  share¬ 
holders  are  eligible  to  tenancy.  Porters  and  janitors  are  selected  from 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


309 


among  the  tenants,  and  those  best  fitted  are  chosen.  Their  duties  are 
to  manage  the  buildings,  keep  order,  and  report  to  the  board  any  repairs 
that  are  to  be  made.  A  committee  of  five  members  has  general  control 
and  supervision. 

Nearly  all  the  tenants  live  within  twenty  minutes’  walk  of  their  work. 
There  are  no  social  annexes,  such  as  libraries,  reading  rooms,  and  halls. 
Laundries,  baths,  or  bread  ovens  have  not  been  provided. 

LOEST’S  COURT,  HALLE  ON  THE  SAALE. 

The  property  known  as  Loest’s  Court  ( Loestfs  Hof)  is  situated  in 
Schmiedstrasse,  Halle  on  the  Saale.  The  group  of  buildings  is  com¬ 
posed  of  several  connected  blocks.  The  frontage  of  each  lot  on  which 
a  single  building  is  located  is  52  feet  6  inches  and  the  depth  59  feet 
1  inch.  A  building  occupies  the  whole  frontage  and  runs  to  a  depth 
of  33  feet  7  inches.  Of  the  total  area  of  a  lot  2,077  square  feet  are 
occupied  by  dwellings,  coal  sheds,  etc.,  and  a  free  open  space  embraces 
1,023  square  feet. 

The  open  space  is  in  the  form  of  a  yard  in  the  rear.  In  addition  to 
this  each  tenant  has  775  square  feet  of  garden  space  allotted  him  across 
the  street.  The  yard  in  the  rear  is  used  by  the  tenants  of  each  build¬ 
ing  in  common  as  a  passage  to  coal  sheds  and  rear  entrances.  The 
garden  space  may  be  used  for  recreation,  growing  vegetables,  or  for 
keeping  chickens,  goats,  and  other  domestic  animals,  according  as  each 
tenant  sees  fit  to  utilize  his  allotment. 

The  building  is  of  brick,  with  tile  trimmings,  and  consists  of  four 
stories  and  basement  cellar.  The  total  height  is  59  feet  8  inches.  The 
exterior  walls  are  25  inches  thick  at  the  foundation  and  15  inches  from 
the  ground  floor  up.  Every  precaution  possible  has  been  taken  to  make 
the  building  fireproof.  Flues  are  lined  with  tiles,  and  the  staircases 
are  granite,  with  iron  railings.  The  roof  is  covered  with  tiles,  and  the 
cellar  is  paved  with  Flemish  bricks.  The  cellar  is  used  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  for  storage  purposes. 

There  are  three  families  on  each  floor  using  the  same  staircase.  There 
are  two  entrances  to  the  hallways — one  from  the  street  and  one  from 
the  court.  Only  one  door  opens  directly  from  the  lodgings  to  the  hall¬ 
way.  Connection  is  made  by  private  corridor  with  the  kitchen  and 
the  two  other  rooms  of  the  tenement.  The  tenements  are  not  self- 
contained,  though  all  reasonable  dispositions  have  been  made  for  secur¬ 
ing  independence  and  isolation  to  the  individual  family.  Every  room 
communicates  directly  with  the  open  air.  All  bedrooms  have  venti¬ 
lators,  and  four  rooms  on  each  floor  have  through  ventilation.  Privies 
exist  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  every  three  families.  They  are  situated  on 
each  floor  in  an  extension  at  the  rear  which  is  reached  from  the  corridor, 
but  well  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building. 

Very  satisfactory  arrangements  have  been  made  for  privy  discharge 
pipes  and  underground  pits.  The  pits  are  lined  with  12-inch  water- 


310  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

tight  concrete  and  vaulted  with  masonry,  and  are  situated  12  inches 
away  from  the  main  building  wall.  The  opening  to  each  has  a  double 
tight-fitting  cast-iron  lid,  and  ventilation  takes  place  through  the  dis¬ 
charge  pipe,  which  extends  about  3  feet  above  the  roof.  Beside  this 
there  is  a  ventilating  shaft,  5  inches  in  diameter,  extending  from  the  top 
of  the  pit  and  alongside  the  kitchen  flue  to  the  top  of  the  house.  Each 
privy  has  a  tight-fitting  lid.  The  connection  and  discharge  pipes  are 
both  air  and  water  tight.  The  pit  is  emptied  every  three  months  by 
means  of  a  hose  and  air  pressure  apparatus,  and  the  refuse  is  conveyed 
to  neighboring  farms  for  fertilizing.  The  waste  water  from  the  kitchens 
and  laundry  is  conveyed  to  a  sink  in  the  yard,  and  from  there,  by 
means  of  a  conduit  under  the  building,  to  the  main  street  sewer. 

The  allowance  of  water  per  day  to  an  individual  is  25  liters  (20 
quarts).  On  the  first  and  third  floors  of  the  buildings  oil  lamps  are 
placed  in  the  hallways.  Coal  and  brickettes  are  used  for  fuel.  The 
hallways  and  staircases  are  not  heated. 

A  range  has  been  placed  in  each  kitchen.  Fuel  storage  has  been  pro¬ 
vided  in  a  brick  building  erected  in  every  back  yard.  In  each  back 
yard  there  are  also  two  walled-in  receptacles  with  iron  covers,  one  for 
ashes  and  the  other  for  garbage.  These  receptacles  have  openings  in 
the  rear  to  the  alley  from  which  their  contents  may  be  removed.  Each 
tenant  has  a  pantry  within  his  dwelling.  Every  living  room  has  a 
stove  with  an  iron  bottom  and  earthen  tile  top.  The  accompanying 
sketches  show  the  general  disposition  of  the  property,  external  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  buildings  with  the  garden  space  in  front,  and  the  floor 
plans  (plans  Nos.  50  A,  50  B,  and  50  C). 

The  height  of  ceilings  is  9  feet  2  inches,  9  feet  10  inches,  and  10  feet 
4  inches  in  the  different  stories.  In  three-room  tenements  kitchens  are 
9  feet  8  inches  by  6  feet  11  inches  and  10  feet  2  inches  by  8  feet  6 
inches ;  bedrooms  are  13  feet  11  inches  by  11  feet  2  inches  and  14  feet 
4  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches;  living  rooms  are  13  feet  11  inches  by  11 
feet  2  inches  and  14  feet  10  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches.  The  cubic  air 
space  of  three-room  tenements,  excluding  the  corridor,  ranges  from 
3,500  to  4,000  feet.  Two  four-room  tenements  are  found  in  each  block. 
In  each  of  these  the  kitchen  is  8  feet  6  inches  by  8  feet  2  inches,  the 
living  room  14  feet  5  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches,  and  two  bedrooms  13 
feet  11  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches  and  13  feet  6  inches  by  11  feet  2  inches, 
respectively.  There  also  exists  a  three-room  tenement  in  the  basement 
of  each  block,  which  is  occupied  by  the  person  in  charge  and  his  family. 
The  floor  space  bears  a  fair  proportion  to  that  of  similar  tenements  in 
the  higher  stories,  the  chief  difference  being  that  the  ceilings  are  but 
7  feet  5  inches  high.  On  an  average  there  are  twelve  tenements  in  each 
block — ten  three-room  and  two  four-room.  There  are  a  few  five-room 
tenements.  In  the  entire  group  of  these  blocks  there  are  482  tenements, 
384  of  which  contain  three  rooms.  Four  additional  blocks  are  in  course 
of  construction. 


LOEST’S  COURT,  HALLE  ON  THE  SAALE,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  50  a. 


>- 

z 

< 

cr 

UJ 

o 

LlT 


cr 

3 

o 

o 

CO 

P- 

co 

LlJ 

O 


Front  elevation  and  gardens. 


Ground  fioor. 


LOEST’S  COURT,  HALLE  ON  THE  SAALE,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  50c. 


Cellar  and  court. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


311 


A  census  of  the  entire  group  of  tenement  buildings  in  1892  gave  the 
total  number  of  inhabitants  as  2,029.  Of  these,  150  were  under  1  year 
of  age,  390  from  1  to  5  years,  527  from  5  to  14  years,  198  from  14  to  20 
years,  693  from  20  to  50  years,  and  71  over  50  years.  The  females 
slightly  predominated.  The  death  rate  among  all  the  inhabitants  was 
13.31  per  1,000.  The  death  rate  for  the  whole  city  was  18.67  per  1,000. 
The  mortality  of  children  under  5  years  of  age  in  the  buildings  was 
10.84  per  1,000  of  all  ages.  Of  the  150  births  during  the  year  two  were 
illegitimate.  The  birth  rate  was  more  than  double  that  of  the  city. 
There  were  no  criminal  convictions  among  the  residents  of  the  buildings. 

The  rental  of  typical  three-room  tenements  in  the  basement  is  108 
marks  ($25.70)  per  year;  in  the  second  story,  150  marks  ($35.70);  in  the 
third  story,  144  marks  ($34.27);  in  the  fourth  story,  135  marks  ($32.13). 
Four-room  tenements  in  the  first  story  rent  for  225  marks  ($53.55)  per 
annum. 

The  original  cost  of  a  lot  upon  which  a  single  block  has  been  built 
was  4,000  marks  ($952).  The  cost  of  construction  was  32,000  marks 
($7,616).  The  first  block  was  opened  for  habitation  October  21,  1883. 
The  enterprise  is  purely  a  private  investment,  Herr  Loest  being  sole 
proprietor.  He  is  willing  to  sell  blocks,  but  not  individual  tenements 
separately.  About  75  per  cent  is  borrowed  capital,  the  amount  having 
been  obtained  chiefly  from  speculative  mortgage  banks  and  private 
individuals.  The  interest  paid  for  borrowed  capital  has  been  4£  per 
cent.  Being  a  purely  private  investment  the  amount  of  profit  is  not 
disclosed,  but  it  has  been  satisfactory. 

The  total  estimated  value  of  this  property,  as  a  whole,  was  in 
1892  1,518,000  marks  ($361, 2S4).  The  sum  received  for  rent  during  the 
last  fiscal  year  (1891)  was  64,450  marks  ($15,339.10).  The  number  of 
unoccupied  tenements  was  from  4  to  8  per  cent. 

A  summary  of  taxes  paid  during  a  year  upon  one  block  of  twelve 
tenements  follows: 


TAXES  PAID  UPON  A  BLOCK  OF  LOEST’S  COURT,  HALLE  ON  THE  SAXLE. 


Name  of  tax. 

Total. 

Average 

per 

tenement. 

Propor¬ 
tion  paid 
by  pro¬ 
prietor. 

Propor¬ 
tion  paid 
by  ten¬ 
ant. 

State  building . 

$15. 99 
10. 98 
23.47 
.12 

$1. 33 
.92 

1.  96 
.01 

All . 

None. 

None. 

All. 

None. 

All . 

None  ... 
All . 

50. 56 

4.22 

Bents  are  paid  quarterly  in  advance  at  the  office  of  the  proprietor. 
Three  months’  notice  is  required  from  a  tenant  of  intention  to  leave, 
and  three  months  of  arrearages  are  allowed  before  an  ejectment.  The 
amount  of  arrearage  during  the  last  fiscal  year  (1891)  amounted  to 
1,975  marks  ($470.05).  Rentals  have  remained  stationary,  while  those 
in  the  city  have  declined.  The  principal  causes  of  decline  have  been 


312  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


lack  of  work  and  consequent  curtailing  of  expenses  by  tenants,  and  fur¬ 
ther,  more  buildings  have  been  constructed  than  are  necessary  to  meet 
the  demand.  As  a  rule  rents  in  Loest’s  Court  are  10  per  cent  lower 
than  for  fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  that  15  per  cent  of  earnings  is  about  the  proportion  which  goes 
for  rent. 

The  occupations  and  average  annual  earnings  of  361  heads  of  fami¬ 
lies  in  Loest’s  Court  appear  in  the  following  table: 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  LOEST’S 

COURT,  HALLE  ON  THE  SAALE. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Barber . 

1 

Basket  maker . 

1 

$178.  50 

Blacksmiths . 

9 

238.  00 

Brewer . 

1 

214.  20 

Cabinetmakers . 

2 

285.  60 

Carpenter . 

1 

190. 40 

Coachmen . 

8 

178.  50 

Coopers . 

3 

214.20 

Coppersmiths . 

9 

238.  00 

Engineer . 

1 

428. 40 

Foremen,  miners . 

2 

238.  00 

Gardener . 

1 

166.  60 

Laborers . 

148 

166.  60 

Locksmiths . 

94 

285.  60 

Masons . 

5 

190. 40 

2 

1 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Merchants . . . . . 

4 

Molders . 

13 

$238.  00 

Night  watchmen . 

2 

142.  80 

Overseer . 

1 

285.  60 

Porters . . . 

2 

214. 20 

Railway  employees . 

22 

238.  00 

Restaurant  keeper . 

1 

Salesmen . 

9 

357.  00 

Sawmill  hand . 

1 

238.  00 

Shoemakers . 

7 

Sieve  maker . 

1 

214.  20 

Stone  setters . 

2 

238.  00 

Tanner . 

1 

214.  20 

Tile  looter . 

1 

214.  20 

Tinners . 

4 

238.  00 

Wood  turner . 

1 

178. 50 

There  were  333  heads  of  families  who  lived  under  one-half  a  mile  from 
their  places  of  work.  The  cost  of  a  round  trip  on  the  electric  railway 
was  10  pfennigs  (2.38  cents).  Only  two  lived  more  than  5  miles  from 
their  locality  of  labor. 

Statistics  of  the  average  duration  of  tenancy  during  the  last  five 
years  show  that  127  families  kept  their  dwellings  for  over  five  years,  84 
from  three  to  five  years,  108  from  1  to  3  years,  and  43  under  1  year. 
Tenants  may  not  sublet  or  receive  boarders.  Applicants  for  tenements 
call  at  the  office  of  the  inspector,  who  shows  them  through  the  vacant 
apartments,  and  if  they  desire  to  rent  they  immediately  pay  down  2 
marks  (48  cents)  as  security.  Before  moving  in  they  must  pay  a  full 
quarter’s  rent  in  advance  and  sign  a  contract  of  tenancy. 

The  supervising  force  is  composed  of  a  manager  for  each  group,  who 
collects  the  rents,  and  a  janitor  for  each  block,  who  cleans  the  court 
and  private  street. 

A  library,  reading  room,  meeting  hall,  and  hall  for  religious  services 
have  been  provided  free  of  cost  by  the  proprietor. 

The  tenants  have  formed  a  society  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  bet¬ 
ter  acquainted  with  one  another,  and  for  organizing  debates,  lectures, 
readings,  and  other  forms  of  entertainment.  They  have  also  a  fund 
for  the  purchase  of  books,  newspapers,  and  games.  Political  discus¬ 
sions  are  not  permitted  at  the  meetings.  There  is  also  a  kindergarten 
provided. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


313 


Each  building  has  a  bathroom  with  a  tub  and  shower  bath  apparatus 
and  hot  and  cold  water.  Tenants  furnish  the  fuel  for  heating.  Each 
block  has  a  laundry  in  the  yard,  with  kettles  for  heating  water.  There 
are  two  large  bakeries  for  the  use  of  tenants.  The  laundries  and  other 
conveniences  are  freely  used.  Only  about  one  eighth  of  the  adult 
iuhabitants  patronize  the  library  and  reading  room. 

HOLLAND. 

SOCIETY  FOR  IMPROVING  THE  CONDITION  OF  THE  WORKING 

CLASSES,  AMSTERDAM. 

In  1852  an  organization,  Yereeniging  ten  Behoeve  der  Arbeidende 
Klasse,  was  formed  in  Amsterdam,  Holland,  which  has  since  developed 
into  one  of  the  most  important  housing  societies  of  that  country.  The 
original  aim  was  to  acquire  buildings  which  were  in  bad  sanitary  con¬ 
dition,  improve  them  and  rent  them,  and  in  addition  to  erect  new  build¬ 
ings.  The  first  part  of  the  scheme  was  ultimately  abandoned,  but  the 
second  has  received  considerable  development.  Originally  the  society 
limited  itself  to  a  dividend  of  3  per  cent,  and  during  that  time  its  sphere 
of  operations  was  restricted.  In  1808,  in  order  to  secure  greater  capital, 
it  raised  the  dividend  to  5  per  cent.  As  a  result  considerable  develop¬ 
ment  took  place,  and  the  capital  was  shortly  increased  to  1,250,000 
francs  ($241,250).  Kents  were  raised  without  entirely  sacrificing  the 
philanthropic  character  of  the  work.  This  new  move  simply  placed  it 
upon  a  commercial  basis.  The  capital  stock  in  1S91  was  1,562,500  francs 
($301,562.50),  while  the  total  value  of  the  property  owned  was  2,350,000 
francs  ($453,550).  Its  buildings  include  807  tenements  of  one  and  two 
rooms.  Buildings  for  the  most  part  are  of  three  stories.  The  tene¬ 
ments  are  self-contained.  The  rent  of  a  single  room  having  377  square 
feet  of  floor  space  is  4.75  francs  (92  cents)  per  week.  Two  rooms,  having 
592  square  feet  of  floor  space,  rent  for  6.25  francs  ($1.21)  per  week. 

AMSTERDAM  ASSOCIATION  FOR  BUILDING  LABORERS’  DWELL¬ 
INGS,  AMSTERDAM. 

Another  important  housing  company  in  Amsterdam  is  the  Amster- 
damsclie  Yereeniging  tot  het  Bouwen  van  Arbeiders  Woningen.  This 
organization  was  the  outcome  of  an  official  municipal  inquiry,  which 
showed  that  a  large  number  of  families  inhabited  unhealthy  cellars  and 
huts.  The  municipal  administration  lent  encouragement  by  offering  to 
furnish  land  for  building  purposes,  make  the  necessary  streets,  and 
place  gratuitously  at  the  disposal  of  the  society  an  architect  and  other 
municipal  functionaries,  as  well  as  to  loan  a  maximum  sum  of  4,500,000 
francs  ($868,500),  at  4£  per  cent  interest.  The  conditions  of  the  loan 
were  that  the  society  should  have  a  guaranteed  capital  of  1,250,000 
francs  $241,250),  which,  placed  in  the  banks  of  the  state,  should  bear 


314  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

2  per  cent  interest;  that  the  city  should  have  its  advances  reimbursed 
first  of  all,  and  that  after  the  capital  stock  was  repaid  to  shareholders 
the  city  should  enter  into  possession  not  only  of  the  land  but  of  the 
buildings  as  well. 

The  erection  of  houses  was  commenced  in  1876.  The  number  of 
dwellings  erected  up  to  1891  was  774, while  the  sum  total  of  the  advances 
made  by  the  city  was  3,175,000  francs  ($612,775).  The  tenements  are 
self-contained,  and  the  average  surface  of  one- room  tenements  is  448 
square  feet.  The  rent  of  a  single  room  tenement  varies  from  4.50  to 
5.25  francs  (87  cents  to  $1.01)  per  week;  for  a  two-room  tenement  the 
rent  varies  from  5.70  to  7.75  francs  ($1.10  to  $1.50)  per  week.  Eentals 
are  fixed  at  the  same  price  as  that  paid  for  fairly  similar  accommoda¬ 
tion  elsewhere.  The  average  earnings  of  the  heads  of  tenant  families 
are  from  30  to  32.50  francs  ($5.79  to  $6.27)  per  week. 

SWEDEN. 

SAINT  ERIK  BUILDING  COMP  ANT,  STOCKHOLM. 

This  company  was  organized  in  1876,  and  is  now  the  proprietor  of 
seventeen  model  tenement  buildings,  in  which  one-room  tenements  rent 
for  165  kroner  ($44.22)  and  two-room  tenements  for  180  kroner  ($48.24) 
per  annum.  The  present  share  capital  is  349,400  kroner  ($93,639.20). 
The  rate  of  annual  dividend  paid  has  been  5  per  cent.  The  maximum 
limit  is  fixed  at  6  per  cent.  In  addition  a  reserve  fund  of  72,000  kroner 
($19,296)  has  been  accumulated.  The  sum  of  64,500  kroner  ($17,286) 
has  been  borrowed  from  the  Stockholm  Eire  Insurance  Company  and 
the  municipal  overseers  of  the  poor.  In  1891  the  estimated  value  of  the 
property  belonging  to  the  company  was  491,818.97  kroner  ($131,807.48). 
Bents  have  declined  about  10  per  cent  in  the  last  decade.  Eentals  are 
paid  quarterly  at  the  office  of  the  company.  The  accompanying  plans 
(plans  Nos.  51 A  and  51 B)  show  the  front  elevation  and  interior  arrange¬ 
ments  of  one  of  the  buildings. 

The  buildings  are  of  stone  and  brick  and  are  two  stories  high.  A 
large  space,  unpaved  but  covered  with  gravel,  is  left  at  the  rear  in  the 
form  of  a  courtyard.  In  this  courtyard  the  privies  are  situated.  A 
cooking  range,  pantry,  clothespress,  fireplace,  fuel  storage,  a  garbage 
receptacle,  and  a  privy  are  provided  for  each  tenement. 

jtf* 

STOCKHOLM  LABORERS'  DWELLINGS  COMPANT,  STOCKHOLM. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  Swedish  enterprises  is  the  Stockholm 
Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  the  floor  plans  (plan  No.  52)  of  whose 
first  buildings  are  given. 

The  cost  of  the  lots  was  55,000  kroner  ($14,740),  and  of  the  buildings 
132,500  kroner  ($35,510).  The  land  was  purchased  from  the  city,  which 
did  not  sell  cheaper  than  individual  land  owners  but  gave  easier  terms  of 
payment.  Seventy  families  are  accommodated,  mostly  in  tenements 


-  1  - 

I  -  I 


Front  elevation. 


Cellar. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  SAINT  ERIK  BUILDING  COMPANY,  STOCKHOLM,  SWEDEN 

Plan  No.  51  a. 


Ground  floor. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  SAINT  ERIK  BUILDING  COMPANY,  STOCKHOLM,  SWEDEN. 

Plan  No.  51  b. 


BLOCK  BUILDING  OF  THE  STOCKHOLM  LABORERS’  DWELLINGS  COMPANY}  STOCKHOLM,  SWEDEN. 

Plan  No.  52. 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


315 


of  one  room  and  a  kitchen,  although  there  are  a  few  single  rooms.  The 
rent  of  the  latter  varies  from  110  to  120  kroner  ($29.48  to  $32.1G)  per 
annum.  The  rent  of  the  former  is  from  150  to  170  kroner  ($40.20  to 
$45.50)  per  annum.  The  dividends  are  limited  to  4  per  cent,  and  the 
surplus  is  applied  to  new  buihliugs. 

The  company  was  formed  with  the  idea  of  catering  as  much  as  pos¬ 
sible  to  the  lower  strata  of  laborers;  that  is,  those  whose  earnings  do 
not  reach  above  16  kroner  ($4.29)  weekly.  There  is  much  need  for  good 
housing  of  this  class  in  Stockholm  at  present,  as  rents  are  frequently 
so  high  that  two  families  are  obliged  to  live  in  the  same  room.  The  pre¬ 
vailing  price  for  this  accommodation  is  225  kroner  ($00.30)  per  year. 

STATE  RAILWAY,  GOTHENBURG. 

Houses  for  the  employees  of  the  state  railway  at  Gothenburg  were 
built  in  1887,  at  a  cost  of  420,000  kroner  ($112,500)  for  land  and  build¬ 
ings.  The  houses  are  four  stories  high,  with  front  and  back  entrances. 
Broad  entries  and  stairways  lead  to  the  tenements,  of  which  there 
are  three  and  four  on  each  landing.  The  houses  contain  86  tenements, 
of  which  8  have  three  rooms  with  kitchen  and  78  one  room  with  kitchen. 
The  tenements  have  high  ceilings  and  are  quite  roomy  and  well  lighted. 
Each  one  has  a  large  pantry  and  closet.  Storage  space  is  provided  in 
the  cellar  and  garret.  In  1890  the  total  population  of  these  tenements 
was  405. 

The  rentals  vary  from  25  kroner  to  40  kroner  ($6.70  to  $10.72)  for  three 
rooms  and  kitchen,  and  from  8  kroner  to  15  kroner  ($2.14  to  $4.02)  for 
one  room  and  kitchen  per  month.  The  buildings  were  constructed  with 
money  belonging  to  the  pension  fund  of  the  Swedish  state  railway 
employees,  and  was  loaned  to  the  state  railway  on  condition  that  the 
latter  pay  20,000  kroner  ($5,300)  per  annum  and  assume  the  burden  of 
repairs  and  taxes. 

ROBERT  DICKSON  FUND.  GOTHENBURG. 

Mr.  Robert  Dickson,  in  the  years  1856  and  1857,  donated  a  fund  of 
330,000  kroner  ($88,440)  to  promote  morality  and  piety  among  the 
laboring  people  of  the  city  of  Gothenburg  and  its  suburbs.  It  was 
provided  that  the  first  step  should  be  the  erection  of  healthy  and 
well  furnished  dwellings,  which  should  be  let  on  reasonable  conditions 
to  persons  of  small  means  who  were  known  to  be  of  good  repute,  pref¬ 
erence  being  given  to  married  people.  Two-thirds  of  the  fund  was  set 
aside  for  this  purpose,  the  remainder  being  used  for  the  promotion  of 
the  donor’s  wishes  along  other  lines. 

Sixhousos  were  first  erected,  each  containing  eight  tenements  of  two 
rooms  and  kitchen.  The  total  cost  was  107,500  kroner  ($28,810).  The 
lot  upon  which  the  buildings  stand  contains  31,700  square  feet.  In  1860 
each  tenement  rented  for  13  kroner  to  13.50  kroner  ($3.48  to  $3.62)  per 
month.  At  present  the  prices  charged  are  17.50  kroner  to  18  kroner 


316  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


($4.69  to  $4.82).  Four  two-story  stone  houses,  each  containing  eight 
tenements  of  one  room  and  kitclieu,  were  afterwards  built  in  another 
section  of  tbe  city.  A  drying  house,  place  for  fuel  storage,  laundry, 
and  bake  house  were  also  provided  on  the  premises.  Each  of  the  tene¬ 
ments  in  these  buildings  at  first  rented  for  6  kroner  ($1.61)  per  month ; 
at  present  10  kroner  ($2.68)  are  charged. 

Eight  two-story  houses,  each  containing  eight  tenements  of  one  room, 
kitchen,  hall,  and  pantry  and  a  separate  entrance  for  each  four  tene¬ 
ments,  were  constructed  in  1861.  The  monthly  rental  was  originally 
fixed  at  10  kroner  ($2.68)  per  tenement;  it  is  now  14  kroner  ($3.75). 
In  1869  four  two-story  stone  houses,  containing  eight  tenements  of  one 
room,  kitchen,  and  hall  each,  were  erected.  The  assessed  value  of 
these  houses  is  75,000  kroner  ($20,100).  A  tenement  rents  for  14 
kroner  ($3.75)  per  month.  In  1873  ten  stone  houses,  costing  369,697 
kroner  ($99,078.80),  were  constructed.  These  houses  are  of  a  standard 
type,  and  contain  80  tenements  of  one  room  and  kitchen  each,  a  tene¬ 
ment  being  let  for  12  kroner  to  13  kroner  ($3.22  to  $3.48)  per  month. 
There  are  a  few  tenements  each  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen,  and  for  one 
of  these  19  kroner  to  20  kroner  ($5.09  to  $5.36)  monthly  are  charged. 
The  return  for  1890  shows  that  the  more  recent  building  operations 
have  increased  the  number  of  houses  owned  by  the  fund  to  44,  contain¬ 
ing  339  tenements. 

The  housing  operations  of  the  Dickson  fund  have  been  uniformly 
conducted  with  profit.  In  1890  there  was  a  net  balance  of  31,436.71 
kroner  ($8,425.04).  A  table  showing  the  receipts  and  expenditures 
during  the  ten  years  from  1881  to  1890,  inclusive,  follows: 

RECEIPTS  AND  EXPENDITURES  OE  THE  ROBERT  DICKSON  FUND. 


Tear. 

Receipts. 

Expenditores. 

Surplus. 

1881 . 

$14, 553. 94 
14, 428. 63 
14,  478. 28 
14, 430. 78 
14, 420. 73 
14, 441.83 
14, 414. 41 
14,  397. 30 
14, 413. 66 
14, 299. 88 

$6, 644. 94 
6, 332. 68 
8, 575. 58 
8, 287. 53 
8, 605.  69 
9,  971. 98 
6,455. 75 
8, 884. 71 
5, 598.  06 
5, 874. 84 

$7, 909. 00 
8,  095. 95 
5,  902. 70 
6, 143. 25 
5, 815. 04 
4, 469.  85 
7, 958. 66 
5, 512.  59 
8,  815.  60 
8, 425. 04 

1882  . 

1883  . 

1884 . 

1885 . . 

1886 . 

1887 . 

1888  . 

1889  . 

1890 . 

The  first  step  in  the  direction  of  improving  the  housing  of  working 
people  in  the  city  of  Gothenburg  was  undertaken  by  the  municipality. 
A  plot  of  land  was  set  aside  for  this  purpose,  and  the  city  guaranteed 
a  dividend  of  4  per  cent  on  the  money  loaned  for  building  purposes. 
The  surplus  from  rent,  after  expenses  had  been  paid,  was  set  aside  for 
further  building  operations.  Ten  small  one-story  frame  houses  were 
first  erected  at  a  cost  of  50,650  kroner  ($13,574.20).  In  all  there  were 
47  tenements — 7  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen,  26  of  one  room  and  kitchen, 
and  14  of  one  room  only.  The  houses  were  first  let  (in  1849)  at  a 


CHAPTER  IX. - MODEL  BLOCK  BUILDINGS. 


317 


monthly  rental  of  9  kroner  to  10  kroner  ($2.41  to  $2.68)  for  two  rooms 
with  kitchen,  6  kroner  to  6.66  kroner  ($1.61  to  $1.78)  for  one  room  with 
kitchen,  and  4  kroner  ($1.07)  for  a  single  room  with  fireplace.  Addi¬ 
tional  buildings  were  constructed  in  1849  at  a  cost  of  37,377  kroner 
($10,017.04).  The  new  houses  contained  40  tenements — 16  of  one  room 
with  kitchen  and  pantry,  and  24  single  rooms  with  fireplace  and  pantry. 
In  1850  the  former  were  let  at  6.66  kroner  to  7  kroner  ($1.78  to  $1.88), 
and  the  latter  at  4  kroner  to  5  kroner  ($1.07  to  $1.34)  per  month.  The 
rental  of  the  same  tenements  is  now  12  kroner  to  12.50  kroner  ($3.22  to 
$3.35)  and  7  kroner  to  8.50  kroner  ($1.88  to  $2.28)  per  month.  The 
population  of  these  houses  in  1890  was  249.  The  dimensions  of  rooms 
in  the  last  named  houses  are  17  feet  6  inches  by  17  feet  for  the  living 
rooms  and  11  feet  7  inches  by  11  feet  for  the  kitchens.  The  ceilings  are 
8  feet  4  inches  high.  Costly  repairs  and  improvements  in  the  frame 
houses  have  absorbed  whatever  profits  were  acquired  from  the  invest¬ 
ment.  In  recent  years  the  houses  have  been  bought  and  are  now  con¬ 
trolled  by  the  Dickson  fund. 


- 

' 


CHAPTER  X. 


MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


CHAPTER  X. 


MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 

UNITED  STATES. 

S.  D.  WARREN  AND  COMPANY,  CUMBERLAND  MILLS,  MAINE. 

These  houses  are  the  property  of  the  well  known  paper  manufacturers, 
S.  D.  Warren  and  Company.  The  mill  was  started  about  thirty  years 
ago,  and  there  being  few  houses  near  it  became  necessary  to  erect 
dwellings  in  order  to  get  employees.  The  motive  of  the  enterprise  at 
the  beginning,  therefore,  was  not  to  provide  a  paying  Investment. 

Originally  the  rents  were  fixed  at  so  low  a  figure  as  scarcely  to  cover 
the  necessary  expenses,  such  as  repairs,  maintenance,  taxes,  insurance, 
and  improvements.  Afterwards,  however,  as  the  mills  grew  the  policy 
changed,  and  new  houses  began  to  be  built  in  the  neighborhood. 

The  company,  recognizing  that  it  was  equivalent  to  a  discrimination 
in  wages  to  provide  houses  for  a  part  of  its  tenants  at  such  low  rents, 
raised  the  rentals  until  they  became  equivalent  to  5  per  cent  of  the 
actual  value  of  the  property,  plus  the  taxes,  insurance,  and  water  rates. 
Here  is  an  example;  suppose  the  value  is  fixed  at  $1,500,  the  rent  is 
calculated  on  the  following  basis: 

Per  year. 


Five  per  cent  of  $1,500  (value) .  $75. 00 

Taxes .  22.00 

Water .  10.  00 

Insurance . 1.50 


Total .  108.50 


or,  in  round  numbers,  $9  per  month. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  at  the  present  time  a  liberal  return  is  received 
by  the  proprietors  upon  their  investment.  Putting  the  burden  of  taxes 
upon  the  tenants  is  considered  a  measure  of  security  to  the  company, 
because  it  makes  tenants  more  careful  in  voting  for  measures  which 
might  influence  the  tax  rates. 

The  company  employs  about  1,000  hands,  representing  probably  400 
families.  About  100  families  are  housed  by  the  company,  and  most  of 
the  rest  live  in  their  own  homes.  A  large  number  of  those  owning 
homes  formerly  occupied  the  company’s  houses,  but  were  able  to  save 
sufficient  means  to  build  for  themselves. 


H.  Ex.  354 - 21 


321 


322  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  later  dwellings  built  by  this  company  are  among  the  most 
tasteful,  attractive,  and  conveniently  arranged  dwellings  to  be  found 
anywhere.  The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  53  A  and  53  B)  show 
the  front  and  side  elevations  and  arrangement  of  rooms. 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  upon  which  a  typical  house  stands  is  50  feet 
and  its  depth  100  feet.  The  building  occupies  720  square  feet,  leaving 
more  than  85  per  cent  of  the  lot  at  the  side  and  rear  for  a  yard  and 
garden. 

The  house  is  one  and  one-half  stories  in  height  and  is  built  of  wood,  j 
A  cellar  with  cemented  floor  serves  as  a  storeroom  for  wood,  coal,  and  I 
provisions.  The  water-closet  is  situated,  as  a  rule,  in  the  cellar,  and 
connects  with  the  public  sewer.  The  only  plumbing  in  the  house  is  that 
made  necessary  by  the  closet  and  sink.  There  is  no  restriction  as  to 
the  quantity  of  water  that  may  be  used.  Coal  mostly  is  used  for  heat¬ 
ing  and  kerosene  for  lighting.  A  cooking  range  is  not  provided.  The 
house  has  a  pantry,  and  each  sleeping  room  is  furnished  with  a  clothes- 
press.  In  the  kitchen  is  a  hinged  table.  A  can  is  provided  for  the 
garbage,  and  this  is  removed  once  every  fortnight.  A  porch,  7  feet  by 
12  feet  9  inches,  over  which  the  upper  story  projects,  occupies  one 
corner.  The  house  has  window  shutters,  and  is  well  painted  and  kept, 
thus  presenting  an  extremely  neat  appearance.  The  interior  is  papered, 
has  freshly  painted  woodwork,  and  some  of  the  floors  are  stained  and 
finished  in  oil  The  company  does  the  external  painting  and  puts  the 
interior  in  good  condition  before  a  tenant  moves  in.  If  any  changes 
are  to  be  made  or  papering  done  while  the  tenant  is  occupying  the 
building  he  must  bear  the  expense.  The  house  contains  accommoda¬ 
tions  for  one  family  only. 

Interior  accommodations  consist  of  a  kitchen  11  feet  9  inches  by  12 
feet  6  inches,  a  dining  room  10  feet  7  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches,  a  par¬ 
lor  12  feet  2  inches  by  15  feet  5  inches,  two  bedrooms,  each  11  feet  3 
inches  by  12  feet  2  inches,  and  two  others  9  feet  3  inches  by  10  feet  7 
inches,  and  a  small  chamber  6  feet  8  inches  by  6  feet  6  inches.  The 
ceilings  are  8  feet  6  inches  in  height. 

The  rental  for  this  type  of  house  is  $9  per  month.  Could  its  coun¬ 
terpart  be  found  in  the  vicinity,  private  owners  would  unquestionably 
charge  as  high  as  $12  per  month.  The  existing  value  set  upon  the 
property  is  $1,500.  The  land  is  not  counted,  for  the  reason  that  it  was 
purchased  many  years  ago  at  a  low  figure. 

The  company  owns  12  four-room,  8  five-room,  30  six-room,  39  seven- 
room,  3  eight-room,  3  nine-room,  and  1  twelve-room  houses.  In  addi¬ 
tion,  it  has  provided  2  boarding  houses,  with  fifteen  and  twenty  rooms, 
respectively. 

The  building  expenses  have  been  about  $125,000,  and  the  total  esti¬ 
mated  value  of  the  entire  property  is  $150,000. 


Front  elevation. 


HOUSE  OF  S.  D.  WARREN  AND  COMPANY,  CUMBERLAND  MILLS,  MAINE. 

Plan  No.  53  a. 


HOUSE  OF  S.  D.  WARREN  AND  COMPANY,  CUMBERLAND  MILLS,  MAINE. 

Plan  No.  53  B. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  323 


A  table  showing  the  rental  of  each  class  of  houses  belonging  to  the 
company  appears  below : 

MONTHLY  RENTS  OF  TENEMENTS  OF  S.  D.  WARREN  AND  COMPANY. 


Houses  of— 

Tene¬ 

ments. 

Rooms 

per 

tenement. 

Monthly- 
rent  per 
tenement. 

Houses  of — 

Tene¬ 

ments. 

Rooms 

per 

tenement. 

Monthly 

rent  per 
tenement. 

One  tenement: 

Two . 

2 

5 

$6.00 

6.75 

Four  tenements : 
One . 

1 

4 

$4. 90 
5.  00 

Four . 

4 

5 

2 

4 

Five . 

5 

6 

6.90 

1 

5 

6.  00 

Two . 

2 

6 

7.25 

One . . 

2 

4 

4.30 
4.  60 

Four . 

4 

7 

7.  50 

i 

4 

Two . 

2 

7 

7.90 

i 

5 

6. 20 

One . 

1 

6 

8. 20 

One . 

2 

7 

6. 30 

7.  35 

Four . 

4 

6 

8.50 

2 

7 

Eighteen . 

18 

11 

7 

7 

9.00 

9. 20 

Six  tenements: 
One . 

2 

4 

3. 70 

4.70 

Two . 

2 

8 

10. 40 

2 

4 

One . 

1 

8 

11.25 

2 

6 

6.  75 

2 

9 

11.  30 

One........... 

2 

4 

4.  70 
6. 60 

One . 

1 

12 

14.45 

2 

6 

One . 

1 

9 

15. 80 

2 

6 

6.70 

Two  tenements : 

Six . 

12 

7.25 

The  houses  are  always  occupied  and  there  is  no  loss  of  rental.  Bents 
are  paid  monthly  by  deducting  them  from  the  earnings  of  the  employees. 
Tenants  are  never  ejected.  When  a  tenant  is  sick  the  rents  run  on, 
and  liquidation  is  permitted  upon  recovery  of  health.  Tenants  need 
not  give  any  notice  of  intention  to  quit.  Strikes  have  been  unknown 
in  this  establishment.  All  wages  in  this  establishment  are  paid  by  the 
day ;  there  is  no  piecework.  Boys  over  16  years  of  age  earn  $5  per  week, 
and  200  girls  get  the  same  wages.  In  the  summer  time  girls  working 
in  the  sorting  room  earn  $1  per  day.  The  maximum  wages  are  $2.50 
per  day  to  tenders  of  paper-making  machines,  mechanics,  and  carpen¬ 
ters.  Other  men  whose  work  requires  a  certain  degree  of  skill  earn 
about  $2  per  day.  Over  one-third  of  the  men  in  the  mill  earn  $2  per 
day  or  more. 

An  average  of  about  14  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  tenants  of  the 
company’s  houses  is  paid  for  rent.  Tenancy  is  very  stable  and  few 
changes  occur.  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to  sublet  their  lodgings,  but 
may  receive  boarders. 

There  are  no  formal  regulations.  All  tenants  live  within  half  a  mile 
of  the  mill.  The  experience  of  the  company  goes  to  show  that  houses 
for  one  family  are  the  best  and  most  appreciated;  the  others  are,  indeed, 
somewhat  unpopular. 

Tenants  may  not  buy  the  houses  built  by  the  company ;  but  those 
whose  incomes  justify  it  are  encouraged  to  become  proprietors.  Some 
years  ago  private  speculators  built  tenement  houses  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  mills.  The  company,  not  wishing  to  construct  any  more  tene¬ 
ments  for  rent  and  desiring  to  offset  speculative  builders,  bought  and 
improved  a  tract  of  laud.  A  drainage  system  was  established  and 
streets  were  laid  out.  Lots  were  sold  at  actual  cost  to  employees  who 
were  worthy  and  who  received  sufficient  incomes  to  pay  for  their  houses 


324  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


on  tlie  installment  plan.  The  requisite  funds  were  loaned  at  4  per  cent 
interest.  These  circumstances  took  place  about  three  years  ago,  and 
up  to  the  present  six  houses  have  been  built  on  this  land.  There  is 
room  for  several  hundred,  and  doubtless  they  will  be  built  in  course  of 
time.  A  man  earning  wages  as  low  as  $10  per  week  is  not  considered 
by  the  company  to  be  entirely  competent  to  assume  the  burden  of  house 
ownership  in  this  way.  A  good  suitable  house  alone  costs  $2,000,  that 
is,  a  house  including  a  cellar,  three  rooms  on  the  first  floor,  and  cham¬ 
bers  and  bathroom  on  the  second.  A  lot  66  feet  by  132  feet  would  cost 
$250,  and  improvements,  plumbing,  etc.,  would  bring  the  total  cost  up 
fco  about  $3,000.  Four  per  cent  interest  on  this  would  represent  $120, 
taxes  $23,  insurance  $4,  and  water  $11,  or  a  total  of  $158.  This,  with 
the  liquidating  installments,  would  amount  to  not  less  than  $20  per 
month  which  the  purchaser  would  have  to  pay.  Sometimes  a  family, 
by  combining  the  earnings  of  all  its  members,  is  enabled  to  meet  the 
necessary  payments.  Indeed,  in  employing  young  people  the  company 
always  gives  the  preference  to  those  who  help  their  parents.  A  man 
earning  $12  per  week  may,  by  strict  economy,  come  into  the  possession 
of  his  own  home  at  Cumberland  Mills.  To  secure  a  loan  he  ought  to 
have  at  least  $400  in  ready  money  to  meet  all  contingencies.  The  only 
reservation  the  company  makes  in  deeding  land  to  working  people  is 
against  privies  and  digging  wells.  The  principal  reason  given  for  not 
allowing  tenants  to  buy  the  model  dwelling  houses  is  because  the  com¬ 
pany  does  not  wish  to  dispose  of  the  land,  which  may  be  needed  in  the 
future  for  other  purposes. 

As  regards  the  nationality  of  employees,  they  are  mostly  American 
born.  Three  or  four  are  Irish,  a  goodly  number  are  Canadians  from 
the  eastern  provinces,  and  about  forty  heads  of  families  are  Danes. 

In  the  making  of  paper  only  a  limited  number  of  skilled  workmen  are 
needed,  but  the  work  is  such  as  to  afford  opportunities  for  employment 
to  all  ages  and  grades  of  persons.  Every  member  of  a  family  old 
enough  to  work  may  find  some  sort  of  labor  in  the  mill.  This  is  a 
great  advantage  over  employment  in  cotton  mills,  where  frequently 
more  women  than  men  are  employed.  All  but  one  or  two  of  the  paper 
makers  in  the  company’s  employ  have  learned  their  trade  in  this  mill. 

The  company  maintains  a  free  library  and  reading  room.  This  insti¬ 
tution  is  accessible  to  all  employees.  It  is  situated  on  the  second  floor 
of  the  building  containing  the  company’s  office.  The  library  contains 
about  4,000  volumes.  In  round  numbers,  the  original  cost  was  $5,000, 
and  the  current  running  expenses  are  $300  annually. 

The  women  employees  have  a  literary  society,  which  meets  in  the 
library  at  regular  intervals.  FTo  charge  is  made  for  use  of  library  and 
reading  room.  The  company  owns,  also,  a  large  hall  in  the  town  for 
lodge  and  other  society  gatherings.  The  cost  of  this  was  somewhat 
near  $10,000,  and  rentals  accruing  therefrom  amount  to  $400  per  year. 


HOUSE  OF  HOWLAND  MILLS  CORPORATION,  NEW  BEDFORD,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Plan  No.  54. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


325 


HOWLAND  MILLS  CORPORATION,  NEW  BEDFORD, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

A  group  of  bouses  with  pleasing  architectural  dispositions  has  been 
built  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  new  factories  erected  by  this  corpo¬ 
ration  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  New  Bedford,  not  far  from  the 
bay.  The  lots  vary  considerably  in  size,  so  that  no  one  of  them  could 
well  be  selected  as  an  average.  They  are  sufficiently  large  to  allow 
for  gardens,  walks,  and  front  parking.  A  sketch  of  the  building  selected 
for  description  is  given,  as  well  as  a  plan  of  the  interior  arrangement 
(plan  No.  54). 

This  dwelling  is  a  thoroughly  built  frame  structure  of  two  stories,  and 
occupies  a  lot  of  sufficient  size  to  furnish  a  yard  and  garden  at  the  side 
and  rear.  There  is  a  cellar  8  feet  deep,  paved  with  concrete  and  sup¬ 
plied  with  laundry  trays  and  a  place  for  fuel  storage.  The  house  has 
through  ventilation  everywhere.  The  water-closet  is  situated  inside  the 
building  and  is  provided  with  an  automatic  Hush.  The  plumbing  is  of 
the  most  approved  type.  Waste  water  and  refuse  go  to  the  sewers. 
An  unlimited  quantity  of  water  is  allowed.  Heating  is  done  by  stoves 
and  lighting  by  oil.  No  cooking  range  is  provided  by  the  owner.  The 
pantry  is  10  feet  by  10  feet,  and  contains  a  sink,  a  fuel  bin,  and  compart¬ 
ments  for  bread  and  flour.  There  is  also  a  small  closet  in  the  kitchen. 

A  bathroom,  heated  from  the  kitchen,  is  situated  on  the  second  floor, 
and  is  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water  and  a  marble  washstand.  This 
house  contains  seven  well  papered  rooms.  Their  disposition  and  size 
are  shown  in  the  plan.  The  first  story  is  8  feet  G  inches  and  the  second 
7  feet  8  inches  high.  The  rental  of  the  house  is  $10  per  month.  It 
was  occupied,  when  visited,  by  a  spinner  earning,  on  the  average,  $16 
per  week.  Allowing  fifty  weeks  for  the  working  year,  this  tenant  paid 
15  per  cent  of  his  earnings  for  rent.  The  house  was  built  in  1888,  and 
cost  $2,000. 

The  corporation  owns  50  houses,  and  a  boarding  house  for  men  only, 
in  this  neighborhood.  Twenty-five  houses  were  built  in  1888  and  the 
remainder  in  1889.  Fifteen  of  them  have  five  rooms  and  35  seven  rooms 
each.  The  cost  of  the  former  class  was  about  $1,800,  and  the  rental 
is  $8.50  per  month.  The  cost  of  the  latter  class,  as  has  already  been 
noted,  was  $2,000,  and  the  rental  is  $10  per  month.  The  total  cost  of 
the  land  upon  which  the  group  of  model  dwellings  has  been  built  was 
$3,500,  and  the  total  cost  of  the  houses  $104,000.  To  this  must  be 
added  $38,000  spent  for  sewerage,  drainage,  water  connection,  and  other 
improvements.  Only  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  land  has  so 
far  been  built  upon,  so  that  it  is  not  fair  to  consider  this  latter  item 
solely  as  a  charge  against  the  houses  already  constructed. 

The  total  amount  received  for  rent  from  all  the  dwellings  during 
the  fiscal  year  for  which  returns  were  given  was,  in  round  numbers, 
$5,600. 


326  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OP  LABOR. 


Tenants  are  not  allowed  to  become  proprietors  of  tbe  bouses  already 
built,  but  they  may  buy  vacant  land  from  the  corporation  and  build  for 
themselves.  To  such  people  land  will  be  sold  on  long  time,  and  every 
reasonable  assistance  will  be  given  to  help  them  to  build.  The  reason 
given  for  not  selling  the  dwellings  already  constructed  is  that  they 
are  needed  for  persons  in  the  employ  of  the  corporation.  There  was 
no  loss  of  rental  from  unoccupied  dwellings  during  the  fiscal  year. 
As  rents  are  deducted  weekly  from  wages  nothing  was  lost  from 
arrearages.  Tenants  can  live  in  the  houses  only  while  employees  of  the 
company.  The  dwellings  themselves  are  too  far  removed  from  other 
industrial  establishments  to  permit  any  but  employees  in  the  corpora¬ 
tion’s  mills  to  reside  in  them.  Rentals  have  not  been  advanced  since 
the  buildings  were  opened  for  habitation. 

The  occupations  and  earnings  of  rent  payers,  who  in  most  cases  are 
heads  of  families,  in  the  group  of  model  dwellings  are  shown  in  the 
table  below.  All  of  these  are  not  necessarily  heads  of  families,  for  the 
reason  that  sometimes  but  one  member,  a  son  or  a  daughter,  works  in 
the  mill.  In  such  cases  the  parents  are  entitled  to  tenancy,  but  tbe 
rent  is  paid  by  the  corporation  employee. 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  TENANTS  OF  HOUSES  OF  THE  HOWLAND  MILLS 

CORPORATION. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Weekly 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Weekly 

earnings. 

Back  boy . . 

1 

$5.  73 

1 

p6.  96 

Beamers* . 

1 

io.  66 

1 

8.40 

1 

12.76 

1 

9.68 

Boas  of  picking  room . 

1 

7.  40 

Roving  hand . 

1 

7.32 

Boss  picker . 

1 

9.  50 

1 

8. 05 

Comber . 

1 

7. 32 

1 

7.40 

Comb  winders . 

1 

4.54 

Speeder  . 

1 

9.  41 

1 

5.51 

Spinners . 

2 

6.  38 

I 

6.16 

2 

7.  69 

1 

6.30 

Spoolers . 

1 

4.  61 

2 

6.38 

1 

4. 90 

Doffers . 

1 

5.  51 

1 

6.40 

1 

6.31 

1 

7.  00 

2 

7.  03 

Second  hand . 

1 

15.  00 

Doubler . 

1 

6.  38 

7 

7.  00 

Mule  spinners . 

1 

15. 87 

1 

8.35 

1 

19.  59 

Twister . 

1 

9. 50 

Oiler . 

1 

7.  32 

3 

9.50 

Overseer . 

1 

18.  00 

2 

7.40 

Piecer . 

1 

7. 03 

Heelers . 

1 

5.  99 

1 

6.  38 

Tenants  are  permitted  to  sublet  to  other  employees  in  the  mills,  and 
they  may  also  receive  boarders. 

But  two  deaths,  one  of  which  was  accidental,  occurred  in  this  group 
of  dwellings  during  the  year  for  which  returns  were  given. 

The  houses  have  been  built  as  a  special  inducement  to  employees, 
because  the  mills  are  so  far  removed  from  the  city  proper,  and  not  from 
economic  motives  on  the  part  of  the  corporation.  Every  house  is  situ¬ 
ated  within  a  radius  of  half  a  mile  from  the  factory,  so  that  the  employee 
finds  himself  conveniently  located  with  reference  to  his  work. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  WILLIMANTIC  LINEN  COMPANY,  WILLIMANTIC,  CONNECTICUT 


HOUSE  OF  THE  WILLIMANTIC  LINEN  COMPANY,  WILLIMANTIC,  CONNECTICUT. 

Plan  No.  55  b. 


FOUR  TYPES  OF  HOUSES  OF  THE  WILLIM ANTIC  LINEN  COMPANY,  WILLIMANTIC,  CONNECTICUT. 

Plan  No.  55  c. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


327 


There  are  no  annexes,  such  as  libraries,  reading  rooms,  or  halls  for 
social  or  literary  reunions.  Each  house,  however,  has  a  bath  and 
laundry.  The  architecture  of  the  group  is  varied  and  presents  a  most 
tasteful  and  attractive  appearance. 

The  men’s  boarding  house  cost  $G,000.  It  contains  bathrooms  and 
other  conveniences,  and  accommodates  about  twenty-four  people.  It 
is  conducted  by  a  person  chosen  by  the  proprietor,  and  this  person, 
without  paying  rent,  is  allowed  the  profits  accruing  to  the  enterprise. 
His  charges  are  $4  to  $4.50  per  week  for  board  and  $L  for  five  meals 
to  day  boarders.  The  house  is  always  full. 

Rentals  are  fixed  so  that  the  gross  income  is  G  per  cent,  but  from 
this  must  be  deducted  the  taxes,  expenses  of  maintenance,  repairs, 
which,  however,  are  not  as  yet  burdensome,  and  the  loss  of  rental  from 
the  boarding  house.  The  net  earnings  are  probably  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  3  per  cent,  and  they  should  grow  with  the  increase  in  income 
from  rent,  for  the  reason  that  the  $38,000  spent  for  sewerage,  drainage, 
and  water  connection  should  be  a  diminishing  charge  as  other  land  is 
sold  for  the  erection  of  dwellings  by  euqdoyees  themselves. 

WILLIMANTIC  LINEN  COMPANY,  WILLIMANTIC,  CONNECTICUT. 

The  type  which  has  been  selected  (plans  Nos.  55  A  and  55  B)  for  descrip¬ 
tion  is  placed  on  a  lot  whose  superficial  area  is  10,500  square  feet.  The 
frontage  of  the  dwelling  is  but  half  that  of  the  lot,  and  as  the  dwell¬ 
ing  occupies  little  over  a  tenth  of  the  square  surface  of  the  ground, 
an  ample  portion  remains  for  a  lawn,  walks,  garden,  clothes  yard,  etc. 
The  house  is  a  two-story  frame,  and  contains  six  rooms.  The  kitchen 
is  16  feet  2  inches  by  11  feet  8  inches;  the  parlor,  sitting  room,  and 
one  sleeping  room  are  each  13  feet  2  inches  by  13  feet  2  inches,  and 
there  are  two  bedrooms,  one  13  feet  2  inches  by  18  feet  2  inches  and 
the  other  13  feet  2  inches  by  11  feet  8  inches.  There  are  also  a  pantry, 
five  closets,  and  two  hallways.  The  ceilings  are  9  feet  high  in  the  first 
story  and  8  feet  6  inches  in  the  second.  The  rents  charged  amount  to 
$1.93  per  week  for  this  type  of  house,  which  is  probably  a  little  over 
one-third  of  what  would  be  charged  for  fairly  similar  accommodation 
in  the  neighborhood.  Smaller  houses  rent  for  from  $1.62  to  $1.73  per 
week. 

This  company  commenced  its  housing  operations  in  1865.  In  the 
modern  group  there  are  forty  houses,  four  types  of  which  are  shown 
(plan  No.  55  G),  all  of  six  rooms,  though  varying  considerably  in  the 
arrangement  and  size  of  rooms  and  closet  accommodation.  All  the 
houses  have  front  porches  opening  either  to  halls  or  vestibules.  The 
estimated  value  of  the  property  is  $60,000.  Three  per  cent  gross  is  pro¬ 
vided  for  in  the  fixed  rentals,  which  are  deducted  from  wages. 

Notwithstanding  the  superior  character  of  the  housing  and  the  low 
rentals,  about  5  per  cent  of  the  lodgings  were  unoccupied  during  the 
year  for  which  returns  were  received.  Tenants  are  required  to  give 


328  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


two  weeks’  notice  of  intention  to  move.  Rents  were  lowered  in  July^ 
1885,  in  consequence  of  a  reduction  of  wages.  Tlie  old  rate  of  wages 
was  subsequently  restored  but  the  rents  were  not  advanced. 

The  corporation  houses  about  two-thirds  of  the  heads  of  families 
among  its  male  workmen.  The  foremen,  as  a  rule,  own  their  dwellings. 
It  is  calculated  that  the  rental  charged  absorbs  from  10  to  12£  per  cent 
of  the  earnings  of  tenants. 

No  formal  lease  is  entered  into.  A  candidate  for  a  house  makes  an 
application,  which  the  agent  considers.  There  are  no  special  regula¬ 
tions,  as  the  people  dislike  to  feel  that  they  are  under  control.  The 
company’s  idea  is  to  put  people  on  their  honor. 

The  dwellings  are  all  conveniently  situated  near  the  factory,  the 
farthest  being  under  half  a  mile  distant.  In  building  the  houses  the 
company  has  sought  to  vary  the  architecture  as  much  as  possible.  The 
company  formerly  gave  prizes  for  the  best  flower  gardens. 

The  company  has  provided  a  library  and  a  reading  room  for  the  benefit 
of  its  employees  and  free  also  to  inhabitants  of  the  town.  They  are 
open  from  12  m.  to  9  p.  m.  The  cost  of  maintenance  involves  the  expend¬ 
iture  of  about  $10  a  week  in  salaries,  besides  the  cost  of  heating,  gas, 
and  new  books.  The  building  in  which  these  institutions  are  housed 
was  built  specially  for  the  purpose. 

This  company  believes  that  the  people  do  not  wish  to  be  helped  gra¬ 
tuitously.  In  1884  a  well  intentioned  agent  tried  to  get  all  employees 
under  16  to  go  from  9  to  10  in  the  morning  to  a  room  which  was  heated 
and  well  ventilated  and  provided  with  seats,  where  bouillon  or  milk 
and  crackers  were  served  free.  The  half  hour  following  was  given  to 
play.  It  was  found  that  the  young  people  would  not  go  voluntarily, 
and  some  so  far  objected  to  the  practice  that  they  left  the  works. 
The  women  were  also  compelled  to  leave  their  working  room  during 
the  dinner  hour  and  were  invited  to  occupy  this  room  in  which  to  eat 
their  lunch.  This  also  was  strenuously  objected  to,  some  averring  that 
they  did  not  wish  to  mix  with  working  partners  of  objectionable  nation¬ 
alities,  while  others  feared  that  the  contents  of  their  dinner  pails  might 
perhaps  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  contents  of  those  belonging  to 
their  neighbors.  In  the  same  way  magnifying  glasses  which  were  given 
to  inspectors  of  thread,  in  order  that  their  eyesight  might  be  protected, 
were  not  received  with  favor.  There  is  undoubtedly  something  in  the 
American  temperament,  or  perhaps  one  had  better  say  in  .the  tempera¬ 
ment  of  laborers  working  in  America,  which  is  hostile  to  gratuitous  help 
from  employers. 

PULLMAN'S  PALACE  CAR  COMPANY,  PULLMAN,  ILLINOIS. 

This  town,  which  is  the  creation  of  Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company, 
of  which  Mr.  George  M.  Pullman  is  the  founder  and  president,  has  often 
been  described  as  a  whole,  but  the  house  environments  of  its  inhab¬ 
itants  have  not  received  the  same  attention.  The  following  pages, 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  329 

therefore,  are  devoted  especially  to  the  latter  feature  of  this  manufac¬ 
turing  town. 

A  few  words  at  the  outset  as  to  the  general  plan  upon  which  the  town 
has  been  laid  out.  Land  near  Lake  Calumet  was  selected  and  bought 
for  $800,000.  The  same  property  is  now  estimated  to  be  worth  upward 
of  $5,000,000.  The  building  of  the  town  followed  immediately.  A 
drainage  system,  costing  $300,000  and  modeled  after  that  of  Berlin, 
was  first  perfected.  A  system  of  drains  and  laterals  takes  the  rain 
water  from  the  houses  and  streets  into  Lake  Calumet.  Another  system 
of  pipes,  entirely  independent  from  and  running  below  these,  takes  the 
sewage  from  the  houses  and  shops  to  a  reservoir,  holding  300,000 
gallons,  under  the  water  tower.  All  the  sewage  is  thence  pumped  to  a 
farm  of  140  acres  near  by,  where  all  kinds  of  produce  are  raised — not 
merely  enough  to  supply  the  town  itself,  but  enough  to  leave  a  surplus 
to  be  shipped  to  Chicago  and  other  points.  Near  this  sewage  farm  is 
another  of  420  acres,  which  is  devoted  to  dairy  farming  and  fancy  stock 
raising  purposes.  The  town  draws  its  supply  of  milk,  cream,  and 
butter  from  this  farm.  Both  are  the  property  of  the  company  and  are 
paying  investments,  as  is  every  institution  in  the  whole  community, 
with  the  exception  of  the  hotel.  This  has  not  turned  out  a  remunera¬ 
tive  investment  because  a  strictly  first-class  place  is  conducted,  while 
the  transient  travel  is  light. 

Next  followed  the  laying  of  water  pipes,  and  then  streets  were  laid  out 
and  well  paved.  Afterwards  the  principal  buildings  and  factories  were 
constructed.  Mr.  Pullman  personally  supervised  the  laying  out  and 
building  of  the  town.  The  grounds  are  all  graded  and  a  space  from  20 
to  30  feet  in  width  is  terraced  and  sodded  in  front  of  the  houses.  The 
back  yards  are  inclosed  by  high  fences,  and  every  house  has  a  wood  and 
coal  shed.  A  macadamized  16-foot  alley  runs  through  the  center  of 
each  block.  The  rear  doors  opening  to  these  alleys  from  the  yards  bear 
the  same  numbers  as  the  houses,  so  that  delivery  of  marketing  and 
other  purchases  may  be  conveniently  made  from  the  rear.  Nothing 
offensive  is  allowed  in  the  alleys.  All  who  keep  horses  have  them  cared 
for  at  the  company’s  large  barns.  Garbage  and  ashes  are  removed  at 
frequent  intervals  and  are  taken  to  a  distance  from  the  town  and  buried. 
The  successive  blocks  are  unlike  in  appearance,  presenting  pleasing 
architectural  variety.  At  intervals  of  30  feet  shade  trees  have  been 
planted  along  both  sides  of  the  streets,  and  on  the  main  streets  flowers 
are  grown  around  the  trees.  Open  spaces  planted  with  shrubbery  and 
flowers  constitute  a  park,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  houses  have  been 
built.  The  whole  town  has  the  appearance  of  a  park  studded  with 
buildings. 

There  are  nearly  8  miles  of  paved  streets  in  Pullman.  The  width  of 
the  ordinary  street  is  66  feet,  and  the  distance  between  houses  about 
100  feet.  The  main  boulevard  is  100  feet  wide.  The  streets  are  drained 
and  have  good  cobblestone  gutters,  well  provided  with  catch  basins. 


330  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


There  are  two  classes  of  houses  at  Pullman,  the  tenement  buildings 
and  the  single  houses.  Particular  types  of  each  of  these  have  been 
selected  for  description.  First,  the  tenement  houses  will  be  considered. 
The  location  of  one  of  these  is  on  a  lot  75  feet  wide  by  110  feet  deep, 
about  30  per  cent  of  which  is  covered  with  the  building.  There  is  open 
space  all  around  the  house,  and  that  in  the  rear  is,  for  the  most  part, 
covered  with  slag  and  a  top-dressing  of  gravel.  It  is  used  principally 
as  a  playground  for  children,  though  a  section  of  it  is  employed  for 
clothes  drying.  The  building  is  three  stories  high,  and  is  built  of  brick 
on  a  stone  foundation.  It  has  a  cellar,  used  for  storage  and  fuel,  which 
is  paved  with  cement  concrete.  The  roof  is  of  slate  and  gravel.  The 
staircases  are  of  wood.  Only  the  ordinary  precautions  have  been  taken 
to  render  the  construction  of  the  building  fireproof.  The  only  means  i 
of  escape  in  case  of  fire  is  by  the  stairway.  Only  one  door  in  each 
tenement  opens  to  the  hallway  leading  to  the  stairs.  There  are  no 
arrangements  to  prevent  the  promiscuous  mingling  of  occupants  upon 
landings,  stairways,  and  corridors.  Four  tenements  are  located  on  each  i 
floor.  Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows, 
with  the  open  air.  The  Durham  system  of  ventilation  has  also  been 
used.  There  are  separate  water-closets  for  the  use  of  tenants  of  each  . 
tenement  situated  on  the  same  floor.  The  Jennings  hopper-closet  sys¬ 
tem  is  employed.  Great  care  has  been  exercised  to  secure  good  plumb¬ 
ing.  Ordinary  stoves  are  employed  for  heating.  Gas  is  laid  to  every 
room,  but  its  use  for  lighting  is  optional  with  the  tenant.  Washing  and 
drying  of  clothes  is  done  in  the  separate  tenement.  An  ordinary  cook 
stove  or  a  gas  stove,  if  desired,  is  placed  in  each  tenement.  Garbage 
receptacles  exist  in  the  form  of  barrels  in  the  rear.  A  small  pantry  has 
been  put  in  each  tenement.  There  are  no  clothespresses,  fireplaces, 
heating  registers,  window  shutters,  balconies,  hanging  lamps,  mirrors, 
or  similar  accessories  provided  by  the  company.  There  are  no  interior 
decorations  except  the  ordinary  trimmings  of  woodwork. 

The  tenement  house  of  type  A,  which  is  being  described,  contains  12 
families.  There  are  8  tenements  of  three  rooms  each  and  4  of  four 
rooms.  The  size  of  living  rooms  in  the  three-room  tenements  is  15  feet 
by  13  feet,  and  of  typical  bedrooms  15  feet  by  7  feet  6  inches  and  12 
feet  by  7  feet  6  inches.  In  four-room  tenements  the  parlors  are  15  feet 
by  7  feet  6  inches,  the  kitchens  15  feet  by  13  feet,  one  bedroom  12  feet 
4  inches  by  8  feet,  and  another  9  feet  by  9  feet  6  inches.  The  ceilings 
are  from  8  feet  6  inches  to  9  feet  in  height.  The  pantry  and  linen  closets 
are  7  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  for  the  most  part,  though  some  are  about 
a  foot  larger.  The  total  cost  of  the  building  and  land  of  a  tenement 
house  of  type  A  was  $13,050.  The  gross  rentals  are  $1,224  per  annum. 
The  property  is  now  worth  probably  $15,000.  It  is  owned  by  the  com¬ 
pany  and  rented  to  men  who  work  in  the  shops.  Gas  and  water  are 
paid  for  by  the  tenants. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


331 


The  Pullman  property  is  taxed  in  bulk.  Ten  per  cent  of  the  gross 
rent  will  cover  repairs  and  taxes  at  the  present  time.  The  three-room 
tenements  in  the  first  story  rent  for  $8.50,  and  in  the  second  and  third 
stories  for  $8  per  month.  The  four-room  tenements  rent  for  $9  per 
month.  The  earnings  for  a  year  of  the  heads  of  families  in  the  tene¬ 
ment  house  building  which  has  been  described  were  as  follows:  2  cab 
inetmakers  at  $700  each;  2  car  builders  at  $000  each,  1  at  $575,  2  at 
$500  each,  and  1  at  $650;  1  laborer  at  $450,  2  laborers  at  $400  each,  and 
1  laborer  at  $350.  The  rents  represent  about  20  per  cent  of  the  earnings 
of  the  head  of  the  tenant  family.  The  tenements  are  very  popular 
and  are  always  occupied. 

The  tenant  seems  to  feel  that  living  in  a  flat  secures  certain  advan¬ 
tages.  For  instance,  he  has  a  home  at  a  lower  rent,  and  in  case  of 
sickness  and  trouble  he  has  help  close  at  hand.  The  common  hallway 
is  lighted,  and  the  whole  building  cared  for  by  a  janitor,  services  which 
are  not  rendered  in  single  houses.  He  has  the  advantage  of  reducing 
his  living  expenses  while  at  the  same  time  dwelling  in  improved  streets 
and  in  close  proximity  to  parks  and  gardens. 

There  is  a  large  variety  of  single  houses,  the  rents  ranging  all  the 
way  from  $15  to  $50  per  month.  These  houses  are  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  workingmen  and  employees  with  fair  salaries.  The  average 
rental  of  all  classes  of  tenements  in  Pullman  is  estimated  to  be  $14  per 
month. 

The  type  of  single  house  selected  for  description  has  a  frontage  of  1 7 
feet  and  a  depth  of  32  feet.  It  covers  about  25  per  cent  of  a  lot  having 
equal  frontage.  It  is  built  of  brick,  two  stories  high,  with  basement, 
which  is  used  in  some  houses  of  this  type  for  kitchen  and  dining  room. 
The  roof  front  is  of  slate,  the  top  part  being  of  gravel.  There  is  but 
one  single  street  entrance  for  the  family.  The  water-closet  is  situated 
inside  the  house.  The  Durham  system  of  ventilation  and  the  Jennings 
hopper  closet  are  in  use.  The  plumbing  is  good,  and  there  is  water 
on  both  floors.  An  ordinary  cooking  range  is  placed  in  the  kitchen. 
Fuel  storage  is  provided  in  an  outside  shed.  Garbage  is  put  in  a  barrel 
placed  in  the  back  yard.  There  are  two  cupboards,  seven  gas  jets,  and 
three  chandeliers  as  fixtures.  There  are  window  shutters,  and  an 
uncovered  front  stoop  about  4  feet  by  6  feet  in  size.  The  building  has 
a  pressed  brick  front;  otherwise  there  is  no  attempt  at  external  deco¬ 
ration.  In  the  interior  the  woodwork  is  painted  and  the  walls  are 
papered  and  the  ceiling  calci mined.  The  house  contains  five  rooms — a 
parlor  16  feet  by  12  feet,  a  kitchen  14  feet  by  16  feet,  one  bedroom  12 
feet  by  16  feet,  and  two  others  7  feet  by  8  feet.  The  ceilings  are  10 
feet  and  10  feet  6  inches  high  in  the  respective  stories.  The  original 
cost  of  the  house  ready  for  habitation,  including  the  price  of  land,  was 
about  $1,580.  The  rental  of  this  particular  type  of  house  is  $18  per 
month. 

The  company  owns  all  houses  and  tenements.  It  does  not  yet  sell 
houses  to  individual  workingmen,  though  it  is  credited  with  the  inten- 


332  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


lion  to  do  so  later.  This  policy,  it  is  claimed,  could  not  be  inaugurated 
until  the  public  improvements  have  been  fixed  beyond  the  chance  of 
interference  or  change,  other  than  extension. 

All  rents  are  paid  fortnightly  and  in  advance.  By  the  conditions  of 
the  lease  tenancy  may  be  terminated  at  anytime  upon  ten  days’  written 
notice. 

It  is  estimated  by  the  representative  of  the  company  that  33  per  cent 
of  the  wages  of  the  heads  of  tenant  families  occupying  single  houses 
is  absorbed  in  rent. 

Dwellings  at  Pullman,  of  whatever  class,  are  rarely  vacant.  As  soon 
as  one  is  empty  a  new  tenant  takes  it.  In  the  town  there  are  brick 
tenements  for  1,790  families.  There  are  seventy  frame  tenements. 

The  healthfulness  of  the  town  of  Pullman  is  shown  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  statistics:  The  total  population  September  30,  1892,  was  11,702. 
The  total  number  of  deaths  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  July  31, 1892, 
was  169.  The  death  rate  was  therefore  14.4  per  1,000.  For  the  same 
period  the  birth  rate  was  34.7  per  1,000  of  population. 

The  nativity  of  wage  earners  working  in  the  establishments,  only  a 
portion  of  whom  live  in  the  town,  appears  in  the  subjoined  table: 


NATIVITY  OF  EMPLOYEES  OF  PULLMAN’S  PALACE  CAR  COMPANY,  SEPTEMBER 

15,  1892. 

[From  The  Town  of  Pullman,  by  Mrs.  Duane  Doty.] 


Types. 


American  .... 
Scandinavian 


German 


British 


Dutch 
Irish  . 


Latin 


All  others.. 
Total. 


Countries  where  bom. 

Number. 

Total  of 
types. 

United  States . . . 

1, 796 
89 

1,796 

Denmark . . 

Finland . . . . 

1 

•  1,422 

Norway . . . . 

169 

Sweden _ . _ _ _ 

1, 163 
66 

Bohemia . . 

26 

824 

Germany _ _ _ _ _ .. 

732 

Australia . . . . 

2 

Canada _ _ .... _ .... 

264 

England . . . 

365 

796 

Scotland . . 

131 

Wales . . . 

34 

Holland . 

753 

753 

Ireland . . . 

402 

402 

Belgium . . . 

16 

France . . . 

26 

Italy . 

99 

170 

Spain . . . . 

1 

Switzerland . . 

28 

161 

6,324 

<*• 


The  average  earnings  of  all  employees  during  the  year  ending  July 
31, 1893,  was  stated  to  be  $625.  It  was  found  in  October,  1892,  that  the 
average  length  of  time  operatives  had  remained  in  Pullman  was  four 
and  one-fourth  years. 

Tenement  houses  were  first  built  in  Pullman  in  1881,  and  the  con¬ 
struction  of  single  houses  began  the  following  year. 

The  various  institutions  of  public  welfare  which  have  been  organized 
in  Pullman  have  been  frequently  described.  Only  the  merest  mention 


CHAPTER  X. — MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


333 


of  them  need  here  be  accorded.  The  library  contains  8,000  volumes, 
besides  receiving  seventy  current  papers  and  periodicals.  It  is  the 
personal  gift  of  the  president  of  the  company  to  the  town.  It  is  a  cir¬ 
culating  library,  and  25  cents  per  month  is  charged  for  its  use.  During 
the  fiscal  year  1892,  20,221  books  were  borrowed. 

The  Loan  and  Savings  Bank  was  organized  in  1883.  At  the  end  of 
the  fiscal  year  1892  the  resources  consisted  of — 


Loans  and  discounts . - .  $488,227.83 

Bonds  and  stocks .  372,  850. 00 

Due  from  banks  and  depositories .  206, 386. 37 

Real  estate  and  fixtures .  2, 827. 82 

Cash .  78, 538. 71 


Total .  1,148,830.73 

The  liabilities  were — 

Capital .  $100, 000. 00 

Surplus .  70, 000. 00 

Profit  and  loss .  21, 136. 15 

Dividend  unpaid .  3, 000. 00 

Deposits,  commercial .  378, 141. 04 

Deposits,  savings .  576,553.54 


Total .  1,148,830.73 


May  26,  1893,  there  were  2,585  savings  depositors,  their  aggregate 
deposits  being  $677,328.02,  or  an  average  of  $262.02  for  each  depositor. 

Schools,  churches,  theater,  arcade  with  shops,  and  other  public  build¬ 
ings  have  been  erected.  They  are  all  rented;  indeed,  every  facility  at 
Pullman  must  be  paid  for.  It  is  fairly  certain,  however,  that  the  accom¬ 
modation  is  more  wholesome  and  living  surroundings  are  more  agree¬ 
able  than  in  other  places  in  the  vicinity  and  in  Chicago.  This  fact  is 
held  by  the  company  to  offset  the  somewhat  higher  rents  charged 
where  this  is  the  case. 

MERRIMAC  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  LOWELL, 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  upon  which  the  building  hereafter  described 
is  situated  is  23  feet.  The  total  area  is  1,610  square  feet,  1,344  of  which 
have  been  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  found  between  the  ells,  which 
extend  to  the  rear  of  the  lot.  This  space  is  impaved,  and  is  given  up 
entirely  to  the  free  use  of  occupants.  It  is  only  sufficient  for  foot  pas¬ 
sage  and  clothes  drying. 

The  building  is  three  stories  in  height,  or  33  feet.  It  is  constructed 
of  stone  and  brick  with  roof  of  gravel.  The  thickness  of  exterior  walls 
varies  from  8  inches  to  1  foot.  Brick  walls  intervene  between  each  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  building,  and  stairways  are  partitioned  front  and  rear,  so 
that  reasonable  precautions  against  fire  may  exist.  Staircases  are  con¬ 
structed  of  wood.  There  is  an  nnpaved  cellar  under  the  entire  build¬ 
ing,  which  is  used  for  storage  of  fuel,  provisions,  etc.,  each  tenant 


334  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


having  a  space  partitioned  off  for  his  exclusive  use.  Each  tenement  has 
its  own  front  and  rear  entrances  and  its  own  private  staircase,  com¬ 
pletely  separated  by  partitions  in  front  and  rear.  The  privacy  is  as 
absolute  as  if  every  tenant  lived  in  a  separate  house.  The  disposition 
already  described  makes  unnecessary  any  regulation  to  secure  inde¬ 
pendence  and  isolation  of  the  individual  family.  The  accompanying 
plans  will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  external  appearance  of  the  build¬ 
ing  and  the  disposition  of  the  interior  parts  (plans  Nos.  56  A  and 
56  B).  The  plans  show  two  adjoining  buildings  of  the  kind  described. 

Every  room  communicates  directly,  either  by  doors  or  windows,  with 
the  open  air.  There  are  no  special  facilities  for  ventilation.  Each  ten¬ 
ement  has  a  separate  water-closet  for  the  exclusive  use  of  occupants, 
situated  inside  the  building.  A  short  hopper  and  flush  system  is  used. 
The  soil  pipe  is  of  iron  with  leaded  joints,  and  is  vented  through  the 
roof.  It  is  connected  with  the  sewer  outside  the  building.  An  unlimited 
supply  of  water  is  available,  but  the  tenant  in  addition  to  his  rent  pays 
the  water  rates,  about  $10  per  year;  a  family  of  five  persons  or  less,  and 
having  but  one  sink,  is  charged  only  $6  imr  year.  Heating  is  done  by 
stoves  and  lighting  by  lamps  furnished  by  tenants.  Cooking  ranges 
are  not  supplied  by  the  company.  The  only  garbage  receptacles  are 
barrels  in  the  alley  at  the  rear.  Two  closets  have  been  placed  in  each 
kitchen.  There  are  also  two  wall  closets  in  each  front  room,  and  two 
stationary  wardrobes  in  two  other  rooms.  There  are  no  fireplaces,  but 
holes  for  stovepipes  have  been  made  in  partition  walls  in  all  rooms 
where  there  are  no  chimneys.  There  are  outside  shutters  to  all  win¬ 
dows.  No  interior  decorations  have  been  attempted.  In  a  few  cases 
the  walls  have  been  painted.  The  exterior  appearance  of  the  building 
is  severely  plain. 

Three  families  live  in  the  building.  It  contains  1  four-room  and 
2  five-room  tenements.  The  kitchen  is  14  feet  6  inches  square  in  the 
four-room  tenement,  and  15  feet  3  inches  by  14  feet  6  inches  in  each 
five-room  tenement.  Parlors  are  14  feet  9  inches  by  11  feet  9  inches 
and  11  feet  6  inches  by  14  feet  6  inches  in  the  two  classes  of  tenements, 
respectively.  Bedrooms  vary  from  11  feet  6  inches  by  10  feet  6  inches 
to  10  feet  6  inches  by  7  feet  6  inches. 

The  cost  of  this  property  was  $1,610  for  the  lot  and  $3,000  for  the 
building.  It  was  built  in  1883.  The  rental  of  all  the  tenements,  four- 
room  as  well  as  five-room,  is  $2.12  per  week,  and  is  deducted  from 
the  earnings  of  the  tenant. 

Almost  since  its  foundation  this  corporation  has  been  engaged  in 
the  provision  of  model  housing.  It  owns  206  buildings,  which  contain 
8  four-room  tenements,  65  five-room  tenements,  93  six-room  tenements, 
and  40  ten-room  tenements.  The  total  estimated  value  of  lands  and 
model  tenement  buildings  now  owned  by  this  corporation  is  $664,550. 
In  round  numbers  $27,000  represents  the  annual  rent  roll.  The  aver¬ 
age  annual  net  profit  on  fiscal  operations  has  been  about  2.3  per  cent, 


HOUSES  OF  THE  MERRIMAC  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  LOWELL,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Plan  No.  56  a. 


f-v 


p 


HOUSES  OF  THE  MERRIMAC  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  LOWELL.  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Plan  No.  56  B. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


335 


the  v  orpor  ition  estimates,  without  deducting  repairs.  The  taxes  amount 
to  about  $10,898.62  annually,  and  are  paid  by  the  corporation.  The 
percentage  of  unoccupied  tenements  is  so  slight  that  it  is  not  taken 
into  account. 

The  tenements  are  rented  only  to  employees  of  the  corporation. 
Whenever  a  tenant  leaves  the  employment  of  the  corporation  he  is 
allowed  two  or  three  weeks  in  which  to  vacate  the  premises.  Formal 
notification  is  served  upon  such  parties. 

Rentals  are  never  changed  unless  there  are  variations  in  tax  rates, 
and  then  only  in  proportion  to  the  advance  or  decline  of  the  latter. 
In  the  later  constructed  houses  rents  have  been  estimated  at  about 
15  to  20  per  cent  lower  than  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood.  It  is  estimated  that  20  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  heads 
of  families  goes  for  rent.  Tenants  may  sublet  or  receive  boarders,  but 
only  such  as  are  employees  of  the  corporation.  The  following  notice 
displays  the  attitude  of  the  corporation  relative  to  this  question: 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company. 

Office  of  the  agent. 

Knowing  that  parties  are  rooming  in  houses  owned  by  this  company 
who  are  not  employed  in  the  mills  of  this  corporation,  you  are  hereby 
notified  to  send  away  any  such  parties  at  once,  if  you  have  any  in  your 
house.  This  rule  is  to  be  strictly  enforced,  and  any  tenant  violating 
the  same  will  receive  notice  to  quit. 

- ,  Agent. 

Lowell, - ,  18 — . 

This  corporation  has  boarding  houses  also.  These  are  rented,  the 
company  fixing  the  rates  of  board  which  may  be  charged.  When  the 
mills  first  opened  the  population  of  Lowell  was  quite  small,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  provide  for  the  boarding  of  employees,  especially  women 
who  came  from  the  neighboring  country.  The  company  consequently 
erected  boarding  houses.  As  the  town  grew  there  was  less  of  a  demand 
for  such  places,  but  those  existing  are  even  now  well  patronized.  The 
rates  charged  are  very  moderate.  The  girls  pay  $1.75  per  week,  and 
the  company  supplements  this  by  30  cents  in  each  case  where  the  oper¬ 
ative  boards  at  one  of  its  houses.  In  this  way  the  corporation  pays 
out  $3,000  a  year  in  bounties.  Day  boarders  may  also  be  received  at 
such  places. 

The  company  hardly  expects  to  extend  its  housing  activities.  Though 
the  tangible  financial  returns  have  been  small,  it  is  not  felt  that  money 
has  been  lost  in  the  enterprise;  rather  have  the  results  been  profitable 
to  the  company,  since  the  value  of  a  well  housed  and  well  contented 
working  force,  as  compared  with  the  opposite,  is  beyond  estimate. 


336  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

ROBERT  TREAT  PAINE,  BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Mr.  Eobert  Treat  Paine,  of  Boston,  is  a  pioneer  among  those  Amer¬ 
icans  who  have  interested  themselves  in  improving  housing  conditions. 
He  began  building  about  twenty  years  ago,  and  about  ten  years 
since  erected  forty- five  small  dwellings,  each  house  being  adapted  for  a 
single  family.  Some  have  four,  some  five,  and  some  six  rooms,  besides 
a  bathroom  arranged  for  hot  and  cold  water  and  a  water-closet.  All 
have  cellars.  The  selling  price  of  the  houses  varied  from  $2,000  to 
$3,500.  The  terms  of  payment  were  made  so  easy  that  all  charges, 
including  interest  on  mortgage,  taxes,  water  rates,  and  insurance,  would 
amount  to  from  $130  to  $214  a  year.  A  cash  payment,  varying  from 
$300  to  $500  was  required.  It  was  calculated  that  in  twelve  years’  time 
the  tenant  would  come  into  the  possession  of  his  home  by  paying  no  more 
than  he  would  pay  as  rent.  Mr.  Paine  has  a  decided  preference  for  the 
individual  home  as  compared  with  large  tenements.  A  second  group 
of  eighteen  houses  was  finished  in  May,  1888,  a  third  of  seventeen  houses 
in  October,  1888,  and  a  fourth  of  nine  houses  in  October,  1890.  A  total 
of  101  houses  have  been  built  and  sold  at  stated  prices.  The  land  cost 
from  60  to  75  cents  per  square  foot. 

Mr.  Paine  is  the  president  of  the  Workingmen’s  Building  Association, 
which  was  founded  in  1888  and  has  been  remarkably  successful.  Divi¬ 
dends  were  limited  to  6  per  cent,  everything  beyond  going  to  the  reserve 
fund  or  for  additional  improvements.  Houses  so  far  built  vary  in  price 
from  $2,500  to  $6,500,  without  the  land.  Purchasers  are  usually  of  the 
better  class  of  artisans,  such  as  plumbers,  carpenters,  masons,  engi¬ 
neers,  etc.  There  is  also  a  considerable  number  of  railway  and  city 
employees.  The  association  buys  up  large  tracts  of  land,  and  after 
improving  them  sells  individual  houses  and  ground  either  on  install¬ 
ments  or  for  cash.  The  buildings  are  sold  at  actual  cost  price.  What¬ 
ever  profits  are  made  come  from  the  land,  which  is  bought  at  wholesale 
and  sold  at  retail,  so  to  speak.  There  are  no  limitations  in  the  contracts 
of  sale,  titles  being  perfectly  clear.  The  capital  is  reinvested  from  time 
to  time.  No  money  has  been  borrowed. 

In  addition  to  these  enterprises  just  mentioned,  Mr.  Paine  is  also  con¬ 
nected  as  a  stockholder  with  the  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Com¬ 
pany,  which  is  the  largest  of  all  the  model  housing  agencies  in  that 
city. 

GEEAT  BEITAIN. 

j 

MUNICIPAL  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  HUDDERSFIELD,  ENGLAND- 

The  houses  built  and  managed  by  the  corporation  of  Huddersfield 
are  small  and  situated  contiguously  in  blocks  fronting  on  several  streets, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  block  plan  (plan  No.  57  A). 

About  one-third  of  the  whole  ground  space,  if  private  streets  be 
included,  has  been  built  upon.  The  sidewalks  are  of  concrete  and  the 
streets  are  paved  with  stone.  A  typical  house  has  a  frontage  of  about 


Can 


MUNICIPAL  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS,  HUDDERSFIELD,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  57  a. 


Ground  plan. 


MUNICIPAL  ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS.  HUDDERSFIELD,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  57  b. 


Cellar  plan. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


337 


13  feet  6  indies,  with  a  depth  of  25  feet.  The  open  space  is  in  the 
form  of  a  small  paved  court  at  the  rear,  which  is  concreted  and  sepa¬ 
rated  by  low  brick  walls  from  the  neighboring  courts.  The  house 
contains  two  stories  and  an  attic.  It  is  built  of  stone,  the  exterior 
walls  being  16  inches  thick.  While  not  absolutely  fireproof,  there  is 
little  about  it  which  is  inflammable.  The  stairway  is  of  stone  and 
the  roof  of  slate.  The  house  has  a  cellar,  well  ventilated  by  a  glass- 
covered  opening  under  the  sidewalk,  which  also  serves  as  a  coal  shoot. 
Brick  walls  divide  the  cellar  into  coal  and  storage  compartments,  and 
in  the  latter  there  are  shelves  for  provisions.  The  cellar  floor  is  flag¬ 
ged.  The  house  shelters  but  a  single  family,  so  that  there  is  only 
one  street  entrance.  Ventilation  is  accomplished  by  doors  and  win¬ 
dows  in  the  front  and  rear.  The  sewerage  system  is  very  good.  Waste 
water  is  conducted  to  trapped  pipes  in  the  private  streets,  and  these 
empty  into  the  main  sewer.  The  ground  slopes  gently,  giving  good 
facilities  for  drainage.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water  is  allowed. 

A  brick  outhouse  at  the  back  of  the  court  contains  the  water-closet 
and  dust  box.  The  latter  is  reached  from  the  outside  of  the  court,  so 
as  to  prevent  ashes  from  falling  into  the  court  and  giving  it  an  unsightly 
appearance  and  as  a  measure  of  convenience  in  hauling  them  away. 
Six  persons,  on  an  average,  use  a  single  water-closet.  Washing  is  done 
in  the  scullery,  where  a  boiler  is  embedded  in  a  brick  furnace.  An 
escape  pipe  is  placed  over  the  boiler  to  conduct  the  steam  to  the  chim¬ 
ney.  The  living  room  has  a  concrete  floor,  and  all  other  rooms  have 
wooden  floors.  The  scullery  is  paved  with  large  stone  flags  supported 
on  wooden  beams.  A  range  in  the  living  room  and  an  open  grate  in 
the  large  bedroom  are  used  for  heating  purposes.  The  range  has  com¬ 
partments  for  cooking  and  baking,  as  well  as  a  boiler.  The  grate  has 
au  opening  in  the  floor  containing  a  tin  box  for  catching  ashes.  The 
ashes  fall  through  a  sieve,  but  the  cinders  are  retained.  Economy  of 
fuel  is  the  motive  for  this  accessory.  The  exterior  of  the  building  is 
very  plain,  and  interior  decorations  have  not  been  aimed  at.  A  plan 
of  the  house,  with  front  elevation,  is  given  (plan  No.  57  B). 

This  particular  type  of  house  has  five  rooms — a  scullery  13  feet  by 
6  feet  10  inches,  a  living  room  13  feet  by  12  feet,  two  bedrooms  in  the 
second  story  13  feet  by  12  feet  and  13  feet  by  6  feet  10  inches,  respec¬ 
tively,  and  a  third  bedroom  in  the  attic  13  feet  by  9  feet.  The  ceiling  in 
the  first  story  is  9  feet  6  inches,  in  the  second  story  9  feet,  and  in  the 
attic  7  feet  over  half  the  area.  The  house  rents  for  4s.  8d.  ($1.14) 
weekly.  The  probable  rent  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  city 
would  be  5s.  ($1.22)  per  week.  The  earnings  of  the  head  of  a  family 
occupying  this  type  of  house  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  24s.  ($5.84)  per 
week,  while  those  of  the  family  as  a  whole  would  raise  the  budget  of 
income  fully  80  per  cent. 

H.  Ex.  354 - 22 


338  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

There  are  157  houses  in  the  group  which  belongs  to  the  corpora¬ 
tion  of  Huddersfield.  Ninety-eight  are  separate  model  five-room  houses, 
while  59  are  remodeled  back-to-back  buildings,  containing  three  rooms 
each.  The  model  houses  were  constructed  in  1882.  The  land  was  leased 
at  4d.  (8  cents)  per  square  yard.  The  cost  of  the  houses  was  £28,944 
14s.  lid.  ($140,859.61).  The  rents  of  these  houses  are — 1  at  3s.  4d.  (81 
cents)  per  week,  14  at  3s.  7d.  (87  cents),  1  at  3s.  lOd.  (93  cents),  25  at  4s. 
Id.  (99  cents),  1  at  4s.  5d.  ($1.07),  92  at  4s.  <Sd.  ($1.14),  19  at  5s.  6d.  ($1.34), 
1  at  6s.  ($1.46),  1  house  and  store  at  9s.  2£d.  ($2.24),  and  2  houses  with 
stores  at  10s.  44d.  ($2.52).  The  total  sum  received  for  rental  during 
the  fiscal  year  ending  March  31,  1892,  was  £1,939  3s.  ($9,436.87).  The 
following  table  shows  the  receipts  and  expenditures  for  the  corporation 
dwellings  since  the  enterprise  was  begun  in  1882: 

INCOME  AND  EXPENDITURE  OF  HUDDERSFIELD,  ENGLAND,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  ITS 

ARTISANS’  DWELLINGS. 


Year  endin 


August,  1882 . . 

August,  1883 . . 

August,  1881 . . 

August,  1885 . 

August,  1886 . . 

August,  1887 . 

August,  1888 . 

August,  1889 . 

March,  1890  (seven  months)  a. 

March,  1891 . . 

March,  1892  . . 

Total . 

Balance . 


Income. 


Expendi¬ 

ture. 


$3, 114. 13 

7,  260. 94 

8,  508.  22 

9,  038. 83 
9, 283.  64 
9,  274. 76 
9, 275. 18 
9,  257.  93 
5, 358.  73 
9, 273. 50 
9, 436.  87 


$1,623.06 

7,  986.  09 

8,  650.  61 
9, 192.  55 
9,410. 47 

9,  354.  69 
9,089. 16 
9, 092.  06 
5, 108. 37 
9,  265.  00 
9,  236.  64 


89,  382. 73 


88, 074. 70 


Surplus. 

Deficit. 

$1, 791.  07 

$725. 15 
148. 39 

153. 72 

126.  83 

79. 93 

180. 02 

165.  87 

190.  36 

8.  50 

200. 23 

2, 542.05 
1,  308.  03 

1, 234.  02 

a  Changed  date  of  end  of  fiscal  year. 

Under  the  term  expenses  is  included  ground  rent,  maintenance  and 
repairs,  interest,  sinking  fund,  taxes,  etc. 

FIFTY-THREE  WEENS,  ENDING  MARCH  31, 1892. 


Rents  received .  $9, 436. 87 


Expenses : 

Local  rates .  1,  046.  60 

Ground  rent .  925.24 

Water  rate .  565.25 

Property  tax .  183. 83 

Joining,  painting,  and  sundry  repairs .  705.  22 

Interest  on  capital  and  sinking  fund .  5,  810. 50 


Total .  9,236.64 


One-half  of  1  per  cent  of  the  income  goes  annually  to  the  sinking 
fund.  The  average  annual  net  profit  on  the  fiscal  operations  since  the 
enterprise  began  has  been  4  per  cent.  Money  has  been  borrowed  at 
from  3  to  3  J  per  cent.  The  enterprise  is  municipal,  and  the  corporation 
credit  enables  it  to  obtain  money  at  a  low  figure.  The  local  rates  and 
property  and  water  tax  amount  to  about  9  per  cent  of  the  rent.  But 
£2  14s.  9d.  ($13.32)  were  lost  from  unoccupied  houses  during  the  year 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


339 


ending  July,  1892.  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to  become  proprietors. 
Rents  are  paid  weekly  when  accrued.  They  are  called  for  by  an  author¬ 
ized  agent  of  the  corporation.  As  a  rule  a  month’s  arrearages  would 
be  allowed  before  ejectment  took  place.  The  sum  of  10s.  ($2.43)  was 
lost  from  nonpayment  of  arrears  during  the  year  ending  July,  1892. 
A  tenant  must  give  one  week’s  notice  of  intention  to  quit.  It  takes 
about  five  or  six  weeks,  however,  to  get  tenants  out  if  they  choose  to 
resist.  Rents  have  been  advanced  about  fid.  (10  cents)  per  week  after 
one  year’s  notice.  The  reason  was  that  the  former  figures  were  found 
not  to  have  been  high  enough.  The  occupations  and  earnings  of  heads 
of  tenant  families  appear  in  the  subjoined  table: 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  IN  MUNICIPAL  ARTISANS’ 

DWELLINGS,  HUDDERSFIED,  ENGLAND. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

weekly 

earnings. 

Laborers . 

Letter  carriers . 

26 

5 

$7. 30 

5.  35 

Spinners,  weavers,  dyers, 

88 

10 

$5.  84 
$4. 38  to  5.  35 

Mechanics . 

4 

7. 79 

Policemen . 

5 

5. 84 

Not  specified  (widows) _ 

20 

It  is  considered  that  19  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  heads  of  fami¬ 
lies  goes  for  rent.  The  average  duration  of  tenancy  has  been  three  years 
during  the  last  quinquennial  period.  Tenants  are  required  to  make 
good  all  damage  to  the  property  beyond  ordinary  wear  and  tear,  aud 
the  houses  can  be  used  only  as  private  dwellings.  Tenants  are  not  per¬ 
mitted  to  sublet  unless  specially  authorized  by  the  corporation.  They 
may  receive  boarders  in  the  same  way  only.  No  special  form  of  appli¬ 
cation  is  required  from  prospective  tenants. 

Tenants,  as  a  rule,  live  within  walking  distance  from  their  places  of 
employment.  No  such  accessories  as  baths,  laundries,  libraries,  reading 
rooms,  or  halls  for  entertainment  have  been  provided  in  connection  with 
this  group  of  dwellings.  There  is  scarcely  any  variation  in  the  archi¬ 
tectural  features,  so  that  on  the  whole  the  aesthetic  side  has  been  some¬ 
what  neglected. 

LEVER  BROTHERS,  BIRKENHEAD,  ENGLAND. 

This  firm  has  adopted  a  novel  method  of  profit  sharing.  It  applies 
the  money  which  would  in  an  ordinary  profit  sharing  scheme  form 
the  workingmen’s  share  of  the  profits  to  the  construction  of  houses 
which  are  rented  to  employees,  preference  being  given  to  those  who 
have  been  longest  in  the  establishment.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year  of 
tenancy  the  rent  is  reduced  30  per  cent,  at  the  end  of  the  third  year 
another  30  per  cent,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  a  third  30  per  cent. 
The  remaining  10  per  cent  continues  to  be  paid  in  order  to  meet  the 
expenses  of  maintenance  and  repairs.  A  large  number  of  really  good 
dwellings  have  thus  been  built. 


340  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


JAMES  SMIETON  AND  SONS,  CARNOUSTIE,  SCOTLAND. 

The  model  dwellings  of  Messrs.  James  Smieton  and  Sons,  jute 
manufacturers,  are  situated  at  Carnoustie,  not  far  from  Dundee.  The 
frontage  of  a  lot  is  35  feet  and  the  depth  58  feet.  Six  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  square  feet  have  been  built  upon,  leaving  two-thirds  of 
the  lot  free.  The  open  space  is  situated  in  the  rear  of  the  house  and 
is  used  as  a  lawn.  In  addition  to  this  space  about  1,500  square  feet 
have  been  set  aside  for  each  lamily,  either  adjoining  the  house  or  in  the 
vicinity,  to  be  used  as  a  garden  for  vegetables,  flowers,  etc.  No  extra 
charge  is  made  for  this. 

The  dwellings  are  one  story  in  height  and  are  constructed  of  stone. 
The  exterior  walls  are  18  inches  thick.  Stone  walls  separate  the  build¬ 
ings,  and  when  a  fire  breaks  out  in  one  of  them  the  roofing  is  cut  and 
the  spread  of  the  fire  prevented.  There  are  no  cellars  to  the  houses, 
but  a  space  is  left  between  the  ground  and  the  floor  to  permit  ventila¬ 
tion,  and  ventilators  that  may  be  opened  or  closed  at  will  are  fixed  in 
the  walls  outside.  There  is  but  one  street  entrance  to  each  house. 

One  privy  situated  in  the  back  of  the  court  serves  for  four  houses 
and  is  used  by  fully  sixteen  persons.  The  bottom  of  the  reservoir  is 
inclined  and  connects  by  means  of  conduits  with  the  main  sewer  in  the 
street,  so  that  all  liquid  matter  runs  off  at  once.  The  reservoirs  are 
cleaned  out  at  frequent  intervals.  Recently  water  pipes  have  been 
laid  in  the  streets  and  steps  are  being  taken  to  replace  the  privies  with 
wrater-closets.  In  a  few  houses  water-closets,  provided  with  the  latest 
improved  system  of  flush- out,  are  used.  The  privies  and  water-closets 
are  well  ventilated  by  pipes  communicating  with  the  air  above.  There 
is  no  water  inside  the  houses.  Hydrants  are  placed  outside  and  one 
serves  for  three  or  four  houses.  Sinks  provided  with  traps  are  under  the 
hydrants  and  communicate  directly  with  the  main  sewer  in  the  street. 

For  laundry  purposes  tanks  are  provided  for  receiving  rain  water; 
one  tank  serves  one  or  two  families.  An  unlimited  supply  of  water 
exists  for  the  use  of  tenants.  Coal  is  used  for  heating.  A  cooking 
range  is  constructed  in  the  fireplace  of  each  kitcheu  and  a  grate  in 
each  bedroom.  These  are  provided  and  kept  in  repair  by  the  proprietor. 
All  additional  appliances,  such  as  boilers,  ovens,  etc.,  must  be  furnished 
by  the  tenants  themselves.  Gas  is  used  for  lighting.  Fuel  storage  is 
provided  in  an  outhouse,  and  as  regards  garbage,  three  or  four  families 
use  the  same  receptacle,  which  is  in  the  back  yard.  The  refuse  is 
removed  by  the  town  authorities  once  every  week. 

A  wall  cupboard,  serving  as  a  pantry,  has  been  placed  in  each  kitchen 
and  every  bedroom  has  a  clothespress.  Gas  brackets  are  furnished 
by  the  proprietors,  but  burners  must  be  provided  by  tenants.  The 
buildings  present  a  plain  appearance  from  the  outside.  The  rooms  have 
been  papered  by  tenants.  A  floor  plan  of  one  of  these  dwellings  is 
given  (plan  No.  58). 


JAISTES  SMIETON  AND  SONS,  CARNOUSTIE,  SCOTLAND. 

Plan  No.  58. 


CHAPTER  X. — MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  341 

Kitc  hens  are  15  feet  by  12  feet,  bed  room h  12  feet  by  8  feet,  and  par¬ 
lor*  15  feet  by  12  feet.  Ceiling*  are  U  feet  high. 

The  annual  earning*  of  the  head  of  the  family  whose  house  wa* 
chosen  for  description  wa*  £54  ($282.79),  and  of  the  family  a*  a  whole 
£91  ($442.85).  The  occupation  of  the  tenant  wa*  cloth  finishing.  rJ’he 
annual  rental  paid,  including  taxes  of  all  kinds,  wa*  £7  11*.  8d. 
($88.00).  The  probable  rent  for  a  similar  lodging  in  the  vicinity  would 
be  £10  10*.  ($51.10). 

The  land  is  not  owned  in  fee,  but  what  i*  known  in  Scotland  as  a  feu 
duty  or  ground  rent  of  8*.  ($1.05)  is  paid  on  each  lot.  The  original  cost 
of  the  dwelling,  ready  for  habitation,  was  £125  ($008.81). 

The  first  of  these  model  dwelling*  wa*  opened  in  1858.  There  are 
now  80  in  the  group.  Eleven  of  these  contain  one  room,  0  two  room*, 
70  three  room*, and  2  four  room*.  The  annual  feu  duty  on  the  land  on 
which  the  group  ha*  been  constructed  i*  £52  4s.  ($254.08).  The  origi¬ 
nal  cost  of  the  group  of  house*  wa*  £10,000  ($51,584.00).  The  total 
annual  rental,  a*  shown  by  the  latest  return*,  was  £518  ($2,520.85). 
Tenant*  are  not  permitted  to  ber/mie  proprietor*.  The  dwelling*  are 
intended  for  the  use  of  employees,  and  selling  them  would  result  in 
complication*  should  t  he  owners  leave  the  employment  of  the  firm. 

The  housing  account*  of  thi*  firm  are  not  separated  from  the  general 
manufacturing  accounts;  consequently  it  is  impo  sible  to  give  the  exact 
net  profit  which  ha*  resulted  from  thi*  line  of  investment.  The  firm, 
however,  estimate*  that  it  has  been  fully  3  per  writ. 

The  taxes  are  divided  between  landlord  and  tenant.  In  the  rentals 
quoted  previously  the  proportion  due  by  the  tenant  was  included.  The 
following  table  presents  the  figures: 


TAX  Mi  O  N  MOUSES  Or  JAM  KS  SMI ETON  AND  SONS,  CAIiNOCSTfJS,  SCOTLAND. 


Vtllit:  <rf  tar. 

TV/tal. 

A  Y‘:rnx*> 
l#r  h'/u< 

Drajj.aj'*-.  tar . 

*56. 60 
111.  20 

$ 0.92 

1.26 

Water  7«r .  . 

)'«Um  frvrjMMM .  . 

64  36 

.72 

I'v/r  ntM......... . . . 

60.  37 

.67 

lyjitl'/n .  .  . 

3.71 

.'a 

Sefrxd  rav.y .  . .  ...  . . . 

70.69 

.72 

(/Otuttj  rod  o/z/V/H/iairM  _ .... . . . . . 

11-2.  20 

L 16 

rnptny  */j4  iw/rM  nit/Wi . . . 

66.60 

.62 

None  of  these  taxes  have  a  particular  tendency,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
proprietors,  to  retard  the  erection  of  model  dwelling*. 

There  wa*  nothing  lost  from  unoccupied  lodging*  during  the  year  for 
which  returns  were  available,  a*  all  were  occupied.  All  rents  are 
deducted  each  week  from  wages;  consequently  no  loss  ensues  from  non¬ 
payment.  The  tenant  is  allowed  to  remain  one  week  in  arrears  at  a 
time.  One  week’s  notice  of  termination  of  tenancy  is  required,  both  from 
tee  landlord  and  from  the  tenant.  There  i*  no  clause  in  the  lease  giving 
V>  the  proprietors  the  right  of  summary  ejectment  in  case  the  tenant 


:M2  Bl’KPIAL  UKI'OUT  OF  TII1C  OOMMISfllONKIt  OF  LAHOR. 

goes  on  strike.  Rents  have  advanced  during  Iho  last,  ton  yearn  .'{  por 
cent.  Tho  cause  was  a  riHO in  tho  taxation.  There  are  70  factory  workers 
among  the  tenants,  with  average  annual  earnings  of  X(>.'{  ($[{0(1.50) 
each;  H  bootmakers,  each  averaging  XtIO  ($321.10);  .'{chemical  workers, 
each  averaging  X52  ($25.'{.0tl);  and  2  shopkeepers,  whoso  remuneration 
is  not  known.  About  12  por  cent  of  (lux  earnings  of  tenants,  on  the 
average,  goes  for  rent.  Removals  are  so  rare  dial,  duration  of  tenancy 
has  never  been  statistically  set  forth.  Tenants  may  sublet  any  part  of 
their  lodgings  or  receive  boarders.  No  formal  contract  is  entered  into. 
Tho  death  rate  among  children  under  I  year  of  ago  was,  for  tho  whole 
group,  2  per  1,000,  and  the  same  lor  all  occupants,  Tho  average  death 
rate  for  the  whole  town  was  17  per  1,000.  There  were  7  births  in  the 
model  dwellings  during  the  year  1802,  all  of  which  were  legitimate. 
There  were  no  criminal  convictions  among  the  inhabitants  of  this 
group  of  houses.  The  tenants  are  situated  less  than  half  a,  mile  from 
the  factory. 

In  connection  with  the  model  dwellings  there  has  been  constructed 
a  “people's  palace,”  containing  a,  reading  room,  free  library,  large 
entertainment  hall,  billiard  room,  silling  and  cloak  rooms,  a  piano, 
organ,  and  other  fund  tuns  Tho  original  cost  of  this  social  annex  was 
XI, 750  ($8,5 15,57).  The  expense  of  maintenance  is  about  XJ12  ($155.7.‘l) 
per  year.  Nothing  is  charged  for  using  these  institutions,  but  mem¬ 
bers  contribute  equally  with  the  proprietors  for  daily  papers  and  peri¬ 
odicals  in  the  reading  room.  Tho  average  number  of  persons  making 
use  of  these  annexes  is  about  2(10.  'The  people’s  palace  was  opened 
December  20,  1 8(15.  Tho  hull  seats  about  <100, and  tho  library  contains 
1,300  volumes.  Tho  reading  room  is  supplied  with  six  daily  papers,  live 
weekly  papers,  and  two  periodicals.  There  is  also  a  penny  savings 
bank  connected  with  the  institution,  which  in  1801  showed  a  balance 
credited  I o  depositors  of  XI 05  12s.  5d.  ($514).  Deposits  are  limited  to 
employees  of  the  works,  and  sums  from  Id.  (2  cents)  to  XI  ($1.87)  only 
may  be  received.  Whenever  the  sum  reaches  an  excess  of  XI  ($4.87) 
a  transfer  is  made  to  the  post  olllco  savings  bank,  where  interest  is 
paid.  Interest  is  not  allowed  on  deposits  w  ith  tho  penny  savings  bank. 

Home  of  the  older  buildings,  and  especially  those  containing  one  and 
two  room  tenements,  ha  ve  two  stories,  and  are  arranged  somewhat  like 
tenement  houses.  Tho  one-room  tenements  are  used  exclusively  by 
single  women  employed,  in  the  factory,  and  have  entrances  on  the  side 
of  the  building  opposite  to  those  of  the  two  room  tenements,  so  that 
none  of  the  men  ever  have  occasion  to  go  near  the  single  women’s 
apartments.  In  all  eases  where  it  is  practicable  the  model  dwellings 
are  built  to  house  one  family  each,  as  if  is  considered  more  agreeable 
to  tho  tenants. 

PILIUG  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  EDINBURGH,  HCOTIi AND. 

Those  buildings  are  pioneers  among  tho  improved  dwellings  of  the 
Scottish  capital,  having  been  erected  about  1850  by  Hir  .lames  (Iowan. 


WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY  OF 


Plan  No.  59. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


343 


There  are  sixty-two  contiguous  dwelling  houses,  built  of  stone  and  two 
stories  in  height,  the  entrance  to  the  upper  tenements  being  in  the  rear, 
and  to  those  on  the  ground  floor  in  the  front.  Each  tenement  is  self- 
contained  and  has  a  garden  spot  24  feet  deep  opposite  its  entrance,  the 
rear  garden  being  in  every  sense  as  attractive  as  that  situated  in  front. 
In  each  tenement  there  is  a  sitting  room  12  feet  by  12  feet,  one  bedroom 
12  feet  by  6  feet,  and  another  12  feet  by  8  feet.  There  is  also  a  kitchen 
12  feet  by  12  feet  and  across  the  hall  a  scullery  with  place  for  coal  and 
storage.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  high.  The  rent  per  tenement  varies  from 
£5  5s.  ($25.55)  to  £9  15s.  ($47.45)  per  annum.  A  dividend  of  5  per 
cent  has  been  generally  paid  and  a  small  balance  left  to  the  sinking 
fund. 

FRANCE. 

WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY  OF  PASSY-AUTEUIL, 

PARIS. 

This  organization  was  founded  for  the  purpose  of  aiding  workingmen 
to  become  owners  of  houses.  It  limits  its  dividends  to  4  per  cent. 
Tenants  become  proprietors  in  twenty  years,  through  a  series  of  annual 
payments.  The  company  has  erected  G4  separate  houses.  Drinking 
places  are  prohibited.  Houses  vary  in  value  from  6,000  to  11,000 
francs  ($1,158  to  $2,123).  A  cooperative  association  has  been  formed 
among  the  dwellers,  which  now  has  400  members.  Supplies  from  the 
cooperative  stores  are  secured  at  reduced  prices.  The  Villa  Mulhouse, 
which  is  the  name  given  to  the  property  of  this  company,  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  an  elegant  and  aristocratic  quarter,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  large  houses  and  well-kept  gardens.  M.  Jules  Seigfried,  late  minister 
of  commerce,  is  the  president,  and  M.  Emile  Cacheux  was  the  architect. 
The  plan  of  a  house  fairly  similar  to  the  one  to  be  described  is  given 
(plan  No.  59). 

The  house  chosen  for  description  has  a  frontage  of  23  feet  on  a  lot 
with  a  total  superficial  area  of  979  square  feet.  About  54  per  cent 
of  the  space  has  been  built  upon,  leaving  room  for  a  garden  in  front  and 
a  small  courtyard  in  the  rear.  The  house  has  but  one  story,  is  built  of 
brick,  and  contains  a  cellar  with  gravel  floor.  The  water-closet  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  outside,  and  all  refuse  matter  is  carried  directly  to  the  pub¬ 
lic  sewer.  There  is  through  circulation  from  front  to  rear.  A  waste 
pipe  and  all  hygienic  requirements  have  been  considered  in  the  plumb¬ 
ing.  There  is  an  unlimited  supply  of  city  water.  Oil  or  gas,  as  the 
tenant  prefers,  is  used  for  lighting.  A  cooking  range  in  the  kitchen 
and  three  fireplaces  in  other  rooms  furnish  heat.  Fuel  is  stored  in  the 
cellar.  A  garbage  receptacle,  composed  of  a  tin  ash  bin,  is  provided, 
and  is  emptied  every  morning.  At  the  request  of  the  tenant  the  gas 
company  will,  without  charge,  run  gas  pipes  into  the  house  and  furnish 
a  cooking  stove  and  one  gas  bracket.  Three  mirrors  have  been  put 
in  the  house.  There  are  also  iron  Persian  window  shutters.  Bricks 
of  different  colors  have  been  used  in  building  the  house,  and  the 


8U  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


external  appearance  is  pleasing.  The  house  has  four  rooms,  a  dining 
room  14  feet  0  incut's  by  0  foot  7>A  inches,  two  bedrooms  10  foot  0  inches 
by  10  feet  2  A  inches  each,  and  a  kitchen  0  feet  3  A  inches  by  0  feet  7>A 
inehes.  fhere  is  a  hallway  21  feet  4  inches  by  3  foot  The  ceilings  are 
0  foot  high.  Che  annual  rental  paid  is  300  francs  v$b7.S)0),  w  hile  the 
pivbable  rent  of  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity  would  be  480 
francs  ^SOcvd  per  annum.  The  original  cost  of  land  for  this  house  w  as 
1.303  francs  vS203,48V,  and  of  the  house  itself  4.000  francs  v$772h  Che 
tirst  model  dwelling  house  belonging  to  the  company  was  opened  for 
habitation  in  1882. 

Tenants  are  encouraged  to  become  proprietors:  in  fact,  the  original 
idea  w  as  to  permit  o  eupaney  only  to  intending  purchasers.  After  a 
while,  however,  tenants  were  admitted  purely  as  rent  payers,  with  the 
hope  that  their  surroundings  would  stimulate  them  to  purchase. 
Whenever  they  did  not  do  so  they  were  informed  that  the  houses  were 
needed  for  other  people  and  were  obliged  to  move  out.  Forty-one 
houses  have  been  sold  upon  monthly  payments  which  represent  8.3 
per  cent  annually  upon  the  cost.  The  period  of  payment  runs  twenty 
years.  Four  per  cent  is  the  value  of  rent,  and  4.3  jx'r  cent  represents 
the  cost  of  administration,  installments  of  purchase  money,  etc.  Che 
sum  of  700  francs  v8i>0.30>  is  required  as  an  initial  cash  payment. 
Restrictions  in  the  deed  of  sale  cover  prohibition  from  selling  or  leasing 
the  property  for  ten  years  w  ithout  the  company's  consent  and  refusal 
of  the  privilege  of  maintaining  stores  or  saloons.  In  case  of  resale 
the  company  has  the  option  of  the  purchase.  The  total  amount  of 
slum'  capital  is  200.01M  francs  838.000'.  The  shares  have  mainly  boon 
snbscrilx'd  by  philumhnopioally  disposed  persons.  Dividends  are 
limited  to  «  per  cent,  but  so  far  2 A  per  cent  per  annum  is  the  highest 
sum  which  has  been  paid. 

Rents  or  installments,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  paid  quarterly  when 
accrued.  The  company  is  protected  by  the  deposit  upo  entry.  Rents 
are  called  tor  w  hen  due  by  the  company's  regular  agent.  In  case  of 
accidental  inability  to  pay  a  long  delay  is  j'ormitted,  but  in  other 
eases  tenants  are  not  allowed  to  remain  in  arrears.  A  tenant  may 
apply  to  the  agent  tor  Lao  rowvation  of  his  contract  of  sale,  but  the 
company  complies  with  or  refuses  his  request,  according  to  its  discre¬ 
tion. 

Subletting  or  taking  hoarders  is  not  permitted.  As  "shown  by  the 
latest  returns  the  death  rate  among  occupants  of  the  group  of  model 
dwellings  was  13  p'v  1,000,  For  the  in  which  it  is  situ¬ 

ated  tt  w  as  21.0  per  1,000.  and  for  the  whole  city  of  Paris  28  per  1,000. 

Means  of  communication  with  places  of  work  are  ftirnished  by  a 
twuuw  av  line,  three  omnibus  lines,  beats  on  the  Seine,  the  belt  railway, 
and  another  suburban  railway.  Fairly  well-to-do  workers  and  clerks 
compose  the  majority  of  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  X. — MOPRl.  SMALL  HOICKS* 


815 


DISCOUNT  BANK  OF  PARIS.  PARIS. 

In  the  highest  ami  healthiest  quarter  of  Paris  the  nisconnt  Bank 

opened  for  habitation  July  l,  18tH>,  ;>80  model 
dwelling  houses.  Tho  cost  of  tho  houses,  not  including  land,  was  6,000 
francs  1 1, 158)  each  and  upward.  Tenants  are  permitted  to  become 
proprietors,  making  annual  payments,  with  an  advanoo  to  cover  taxes. 
Four  and  one  half  to  0 per  cent  interest  has  thus  boon  provided  for  by 
the  plan,  Kents  art'  paid  quarterly  when  accrued,  and  are  collected 
by  an  authorised  agent  of  the  proprietor.  The  greatest  forbearance  is 
exercised  in  ease  of  arrearages.  The  buildings  are  of  several  types. 
Tenants  art'  mainly  employees  of  the  ditlereut  branches  of  the  civil 
service,  where  the  head  of  the  family  earns  from  2,200  to  8,000  francs 
($*24.60  to  $094,80)  per  annum.  Adding  the  earnings  of  other  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  family,  the  total  budget  of  receipts  would  rise  to  from  8, 400 
to  4,800  francs  ($656.20  to  $926.40).  — 

HAVRE  WORKINGMEN'S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  HAVRE. 

A  typical  house  of  this  company  (Societo  Havraise  des  Cites  Ouvri- 
tNresi  is  built  of  brick,  on  a  lot  of  25  teet  8  inches  frontage  and  50  feet  0 
inches  depth.  About  onedhird  of  the  lot  is  built  upon,  the  remainder 
being  largely  utilired  for  garden  purinvses.  A  low  brick  wall  separates 
txn  h  property  from  the  adjoining  one.  The  front  wall  is  surmounted 
in  all  cases  by  a  railing  of  iron  or  a  wooden  lattice  constructed  In  the 
tenant  at  his  owu  exjH'nsc.  A  gutter  of  brick  extends  along  the  side 
of  the  house.  Pathways  are  paved  or  covered  with  gravel  at  the 
expense  of  the  tenant.  The  kitchen  is  paved  with  bricks,  but  the  other 
floors  are  of  wood.  Cellar  joists  are  of  iron.  Inner  walls  separating 
the  rooms  are  lightly  constructed  of  mortar.  The  house  has  windows 
in  front  and  rear,  so  that  through  ventilation  is  secured.  A  privy  is 
placed  in  the  back  of  the  court.  The  tub  system  is  in  use, and  the  tubs 
a ix'  emptied  at  the  tenant's  expense.  Waste  water  runs  off  in  gutters 
to  sewers  outside  the  colony.  Xo  range  has  been  put  in  the  kitchen, 
but  a  fireplace  serves  the  purpose.  Washing  is  done  in  a  shod  which 
adjoins  the  privy.  The  external  appearance  of  the  house  is  quite 
plain,  the  only  decoration  being  shutters  to  the  front  windows.  The 
kitchen  is  16  feet 9  inches  by  10  feet  10  inches;  there  is  one  bedroom 
of  the  same  si.  o.  and  two  others  9  foot  0  inches  by  8  foot  0  inches, 
respectively.  The  rental  paid  is  480  francs  ($82.90)  per  year.  The 
rents  charged  include  payments  made  toward  acquiring  the  house. 
They  are  calculated  on  a  basis  of  10  per  cent  of  the  cost  price.  The 
house  becomes  the  property  of  the  occupant  in  about  fourteen  years. 
The  value  of  the  land  is  calculated  at  825  francs  ($159813).  and  of  the 
house  at  4.400  francs  ($849.20), 

This  company  commenced  operations  in  1871,  and  has  now  117 
houses  in  the  group.  The  land  was  bought  very  cheap,  at  4  francs 
(77  cents)  per  square  meter  (10.764  square  feet).  It  is  now  worth 


346  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


15  francs  ($2.90)  per  square  meter,  though  when  sales  take  place  but 
7.50  francs  ($1.45)  is  charged.  Four  per  cent  interest  is  reckoned  in 
payment  for  houses  on  the  installment  plan.  The  occupant  is  not 
privileged  to  sell  the  house  during  his  first  ten  years  of  occupancy. 
He  is  restricted  from  conducting  a  liquor  business,  and  he  can  not 
build  on  the  garden  space  nor  add  another  story. 

The  capital  stock  of  the  company  is  200,000  francs  ($38,600).  It  was 
mainly  raised  from  subscriptions,  though  the  city  gave  a  subsidy  of 
25,000  francs  ($4,825).  Four  per  cent  dividend  is  paid,  and  there  is  a 
reserve  of  16,000  francs  ($3,088).  On  December  31, 1892,  the  sum  of 
114,337.29  francs  ($22,067.10)  was  in  the  hands  of  the  company  ready 
for  reinvestment.  This  was  money  paid  in  by  the  holders  of  the 
houses.  The  sum  of  96,779  francs  ($18,678.35)  was  still  due.  Seventy- 
five  houses  had  been  fully  paid  for,  forty  were  in  process  of  liquida¬ 
tion,  and  two  were  not  sold.  The  cost  of  houses  varies  from  4,400  to 
4,990  francs  ($849.20  to  $963.07),  and  with  the  lot  at  7.50  francs  ($1.45) 
per  square  meter,  the  total  cost  becomes  5,012  to  5,883  francs  ($967.32 
to  $1,135.42).  The  land  tax  amounts  to  from  34  to  42  francs  ($6.56  to 
$8.11)  annually  per  house.  The  tax  on  doors  and  windows  is  18  francs 
($3.47).  and  the  personal  contribution  of  tenants  is  4.55  francs  (88  cents). 
When  a  tenant  takes  a  house  on  the  purchase  plan  he  pays  from  300  to 
500  francs  ($57.90  to  $96.50)  deposit.  In  default  of  two  consecutive 
terms  of  payment  the  property  may  be  sold.  Metal  workers  and  fore¬ 
men  constitute  the  occupations  of  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
former  earn  from  5  to  6  francs  (97  cents  to  $1.16)  per  day,  and  the 
latter  from  5  to  10  francs  (97  cents  to  $1.93)  per  day.  In  Havre  about 
15  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  heads  of  families  is  said  to  go  for  rent. 
Most  of  the  tenants  are  situated  within  a  mile  of  their  places  of 
employment. 

THE  COTTAGE,  LYONS. 

The  establishment  of  this  organization  is  associated  with  the  work  of 
the  Cooperative  Consumers’  Association,  founded  at  Lyons  in  March, 
1889,  under  the  name  of —  Union  of  Employees  of  the  Paris,  Lyons 
and  Mediterranean  Bailway  Comjmny.  The  organization  of  the  latter 
was  due  chiefly  to  M.  Marescot,  assistant  cashier  of  the  railway  com¬ 
pany.  The  union  has  been  a  great  success,  and  numbers  about  20,000 
members.  M.  Marescot,  during  a  visit  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1889, 
was  much  struck  with  the  plans  for  workingmen’s  homes  which  he  saw 
there,  and  determined  to  ascertain  what  could  be  done  at  Oullins,  a 
suburb  of  Lyons  and  an  important  manufacturing  center,  wht>fe  tw 
engine  and  car  shops  of  the  railway  company  were  established.  The 
suburb  has  a  total  population  of  8,000,  and  there  are  2,000  men  in  the 
service  of  the  railway  company.  Considerable  difficulty  was  found  in 
obtaining  the  necessary  capital  to  make  a  commencement.  After  a 
contractor  had  undertaken  the  work  and  built  a  few  houses  as  an 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


347 


experiment  he  refused  to  go  further.  An  appeal  was  then  made  to  the 
Societe  Franyaise  des  Habitations  a  Bon  March6,  whose  avowed  func¬ 
tion  is  to  encourage  any  incipient  enterprise,  and  after  failing  to  nego¬ 
tiate  with  the  Cheap  Dwellings  Company  of  Lyons  and  the  railway 
corporation,  a  private  capitalist,  M.  Chaurand,  came  forward  with  an 
offer  of  the  necessary  funds  to  carry  on  the  work. 

The  association  was  established  under  the  name  of  “The  Cottage,” 
with  a  capital  of  150,000  francs  ($28,050),  and  dividends  were  limited 
to  5  per  cent.  The  object  of  the  association  is  declared  to  be  to  assist 
workingmen  by  constructing,  by  aiding  in  constructing,  or  by  acquiring 
healthy  and  convenient  dwellings  to  be  rented  or  sold  at  moderate  prices 
and  with  the  privilege  of  payment  on  the  installment  plan. 

Land  was  acquired,  upon  which  sixty  houses  were  erected,  and  the  first 
dwelling  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1891.  There  are  two  types  of 
houses  at  present.  The  first  type  consists  of  three  rooms,  a  cellar, 
a  loft,  and  a  garden  space  of  about  1,070  square  feet.  The  cost  of  each 
house  was  3,200  francs  ($017.60),  and  the  monthly  payment  is  24 
francs  ($4.63),  the  property  being  acquired  in  fifteen  years.  The  other 
type  consists  of  four  rooms,  a  cellar,  a  loft,  and  a  garden  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  that  connected  with  the  preceding  house.  It  costs  3,500 
francs  ($675.50).  The  monthly  payment  is  26  francs  ($5.02),  while  the 
period  for  acquisition  is  lengthened  to  sixteen  years  and  five  months. 
In  each  case  there  is  but  a  single  story  with  a  loft.  Existing  houses  are 
occupied  largely  by  employees  of  the  railway  company,  and  earning 
generally  from  5  to  10  francs  (97  cents  to  $1.93)  per  day.  The  kitchens 
are  13  feet  5  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches,  with  an  alcove  5  feet  3  inches  by 

9  feet  10  inches,  and  the  bedrooms  9  feet  4  inches  by  13  feet  9  inches  and 

10  feet  6  inches,  respectively.  The  ceilings  are  9  feet  10  inches  high. 
Five  per  cent  has  been  realized  on  the  fiscal  operations  of  the  society. 
An  option  on  land  capable  of  accommodating  100  houses  has  been 
secured,  and  the  organization  seems  to  have  before  it  a  prosperous 
future. 

The  contract  between  the  company  and  occupiers  is  simply  a  lease, 
with  an  agreement  to  sell  when  a  fixed  sum  shall  have  been  paid  by 
the  tenant.  The  installment  payments  are  made  each  month  in  advance 
and  include  the  rent  and  an  additional  sum  toward  acquisition.  The 
payments  altogether  are  estimated  at  10  per  cent  per  annum  of  the  cost 
of  the  property.  Additional  payments  may  be  made  in  sums  of  not 
less  than  20  francs  ($3.86).  An  open  account  exists  for  each  tenant, 
he  being  debited  with  the  value  of  the  property  and  all  other  sums 
(LicL  he  should  pay.  He  is  credited  with  any  sum  deposited  as  a 
guarantee  on  entering  into  the  contract,  his  monthly  installments, 
and  all  sums  paid  in  addition.  The  account  is  made  up  twice  a  year, 
and  interest  is  charged  on  the  new  balance  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent  per 
annum.  The  right  to  anticipate  the  payments  on  the  house  gives  to 
the  organization  somewhat  of  the  character  of  a  savings  bank,  and 
furnishes  a  stimulus  to  thrift.  It  has  the  advantage,  also,  of  creating 


348  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


an  emergency  fund,  so  to  speak,  in  case  the  tenant  should  be  unable, 
through  sickness  or  lack  of  employment,  to  meet  his  engagements.  In 
case  of  death  or  of  permanent  disability,  so  that  future  installments 
can  not  be  paid,  the  occupant  is  considered  to  have  been  merely  a  ten¬ 
ant,  and  there  is  returned  one-fifth  of  the  monthly  payments  and  any 
advance  payments  made,  but  without  interest,  less  any  sums  due  the 
society  beyond  the  price  of  the  property. 


ROUEN  CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  ROUEN. 


This  company  (Societ6  Rouennaise  de  Maisons  a  Bon  Marches)  owns 
two  groups  of  houses.  One  group  is  situated  in  rue  Boucher  de 
Perthes,  composed  of  44  houses,  the  other  in  rue  Yalmont  de  Bomare, 
composed  of  25  houses.  The  houses  are  built  in  three  styles  and  are  of 
brick  and  stone.  Each  single  house  covers  355  square  feet,  upon  a  lot 
1,141  square  feet  in  area.  The  open  space  is  at  the  rear  and  is  used  as 
a  garden.  There  is  a  cellar  to  each  house,  unpaved,  but  sprinkled 
with  sand  or  gravel.  A  shed  at  the  end  of  the  garden  is  used  for  fuel 
storage,  and  contains  a  laundry  and  privy.  Refuse  falls  into  a  pit, 
and  is  removed  by  an  odorless  excavating  company  whenever  cleaning 
is  necessary.  All  waste  water  goes  to  the  seAver.  A  fountain  in  the 
center  of  the  group  of  houses  furnishes  an  unlimited  supply  of  water. 
Heating  is  done  with  stoves  burning  oil  or  coke;  they  serve  also  for 
cooking  purposes.  Fireplaces  with  marble  mantels  have  been  put  in 
the  parlors  and  upper  bedrooms.  Gas  jets  and  gas  stoves  for  cooking 
are  furnished,  however,  by  the  gas  company  of  Rouen.  Windows  and 
doors  on  the  ground  floor  have  shutters.  The  accompanying  plan  (plan 
No.  60)  shows  the  disposition  of  these  houses. 

The  particular  house  selected  for  description  contains  five  rooms.  The 
kitchen  is  15  feet  8  inches  by  9  feet  2  inches,  the  parlor  about  the  same 
size,  one  bedroom  slightly  larger,  and  two  other  bedrooms  each  9  feet 
2  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches.  The  ceiling  in  the  first  story  is  9  feet  2 
inches  and  in  the  second  8  feet  10  inches. 

The  daily  earnings  of  the  head  of  a  family  occupying  a  house  of 
this  type  vary  from  4  to  7  francs  (77  cents  to  $1.35),  while  the  average 
annual  earnings  of  the  whole  family  amount  to  about  2,000  francs 
($386).  The  annual  rental  for  the  house  is  207  francs  ($39.95).  The 
probable  rent  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood  would 
be  300  francs  ($57.90).  By  paying  312  francs  ($60.22)  per  annum  for 
sixteen  years  the  tenant  may  become  proprietor. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lot  was  580  francs  ($111.94)  and  of  the  house 
3,175  francs  ($612.78).  The  first  dwelling  erected  by  this  company  was 
opened  for  occupancy  in  April,  1888.  In  all,  sixty-nine  houses  have 
been  built.  The  total  cost  of  land  was  40,000  francs  ($7,720)  and  of 
the  buildings  219,000  francs  ($42,267). 


I1 


Plan  showing  entire  group. 

HOUSE  OF  THE  ROUEN  CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  ftOU 

Plan  No.  60. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


349 


cent  dividend  has  been  paid  annually  since  the  formation  of  the 
company,  the  surplus  being  credited  to  reserve.  The  reserve  set  aside 
to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1891-92  was  19,730.10  francs  (13,809.07),  or 
over  15  per  cent  of  the  capital  stock.  It  is  therefore  very  evident  that 
if  the  reserve  be  counted  the  annual  net  profits  have  been  much  beyond 
the  sum  paid  as  dividend.  The  reserve  has  amounted  to  about  5  per 
cent  per  year,  so  that  8  per  cent  in  reality  represents  the  net  profits  of 
the  company.  No  capital  has  been  borrowed.  The  tenant,  being  con¬ 
sidered  the  owner,  is  bound  to  make  repairs.  However,  the  company 
has  taken  charge  of  roofing,  and  this  has  involved  an  expense  of  about 
3  francs  (58  cents)  per  house  per  annum.  The  taxes  amount  to  33.75 
francs  ($6.51)  annually,  all  of  them  paid  by  the  tenant.  These  taxes 
are  exceedingly  heavy.  The  burden  on  the  land  is  13.41  francs  ($2.59), 
the  tax  on  doors  and  windows  15.81  francs  ($3.05),  and  the  personal  tax 
4.50  francs  (87  cents).  In  the  opinion  of  the  company  the  taxes  tend 
to  retard  the  erection  of  small  model  dwellings  and  increase  the  rent 
to  the  tenant  from  12  to  15  per  cent.  The  building  of  model  dwellings, 
they  believe,  would  be  encouraged  by  remitting  all  taxes  on  those 
whose  rental  value  was  less  than  100  francs  ($19.30)  per  annum,  75  per 
cent  on  those  whose  rental  value  was  200  francs  ($38.00)  per  annum,  50 
per  cent  on  those  valued  at  300  francs  ($57.90)  per  annum,  and  25  per 
cent  on  those  valued  up  to  400  francs  ($77.20)  per  annum. 

All  the  houses  have  been  full,  so  that  there  was  no  loss  from  empties; 
neither  was  there  any  from  arrearages.  Rents  are  paid  monthly,  when 
due,  and  are  called  for  by  an  authorized  agent.  Tenants  may  remain 
two  months  in  arrears  before  being  ejected,  but  the  amount  deposited 
as  a  guarantee  for  the  payment  of  rent  must  first  be  exhausted.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  no  case  of  this  kind  has  yet  arisen.  Six  months’  notice 
is  required  of  intention  to  leave,  though  this  rule  is  not  enforced  in  all 
cases.  Rents  have  remained  stationary,  and  represent  about  one-sixth 
of  the  earnings  of  heads  of  families.  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to 
sublet  until  ten  years  have  passed.  Boarders  are  not  forbidden,  but  so 
far  none  have  been  received.  The  average  death  rate  among  inhabitants 
of  the  model  dwellings  has  been  G.6  per  1,000.  In  the  ward  in  which 
they  are  situated  the  death  rate  fluctuates  between  32  and  48  per  1,000; 
for  the  whole  city  between  32  and  35  per  1,000.  There  were  five  births, 
all  legitimate,  within  the  model  dwellings  in  the  fiscal  year  1891.  The 
number  of  legitimate  births  in  the  ward  in  which  the  buildings  are 
situated  during  the  same  time  was  488;  illegitimate  births,  144.  For 
the  year  the  total  number  of  legitimate  births  in  the  city  was  2,137; 
illegitimate  births,  634. 

The  majority  of  occupants  live  from  1  to  2  kilometers  (0.62  to  1.24 
miles)  from  their  places  of  work;  none  of  them  farther.  The  cost  of  a 
round  trip  for  this  distance  is  40  centimes  (8  cents).  About  one-fourth 
of  the  occupants  live  from  one-half  to  one  kilometer  (0.31  to  0.62  mile) 
from  their  places  of  work. 


350  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  occupations  and  earnings  in  1892  of  heads  of  families  in  one  of 
the  groups  of  houses  owned  by  this  company  appear  in  the  following 
table : 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  TENANT  FAMILIES  OF  THE  ROUEN 

CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

1 

$231. 60 

1 

$289. 50 

Blacksmith  . 

1 

347. 40 

1 

'115.80 

Brass  m older . 

1 

231  60 

Shoe  cutters . . . 

3 

347.  40 

Cart  driver . 

1 

347.  50 

1 

289. 50 

Cartwrights . 

2 

289. 50 

Spinner,  head . 

1 

386. 00 

Corporation  clerk . 

1 

347.  40 

Spinning  factory  employee . 

1 

289.  50 

Fitters . 

3 

347. 40 

1 

347.  40 

Household  servant . 

1 

231  60 

1 

289.  50 

2 

386  00 

9 

289. 50 

1 

289  50 

2 

347.  40 

4 

347.  40 

2 

289.  50 

i 

289  50 

1 

231. 60 

Railway  clerk . 

i 

347. 40 

SOLVAY  AND  COMPANY,  VARANGEVILLE-DOMBASLE. 

This  company  started  in  1878  and  has  built  389  dwellings,  housing 
2,122  people.  Nearly  all  of  these  contain  four  rooms  each.  The  object  of  J 
the  company  has  not  been  simply  to  provide  house  accommodation,  but 
to  assist  employees  to  become  owners  of  homes.  A  plan  of  a  typical 
house  is  shown  (plan  No.  61). 

It  is  situated,  with  open  space  all  round  it,  on  a  lot  of  2,153  square 
feet.  Less  than  one-half  of  the  lot  is  built  upon.  The  building  is  con¬ 
structed  of  brick  and  cut  stone,  and  comprises  two  stories  besides  a  cel¬ 
lar,  which  is  paved  with  bricks.  A  privy  for  the  use  of  each  family  is 
situated  outside.  Odorless  barrel  reservoirs  are  used,  and  the  refuse 
is  removed  periodically  by  the  company.  During  summer  time  extra 
disinfection  is  made.  Each  house  consists  of  four  rooms — a  kitchen 
14  feet  9  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches,  a  parlor  14  feet  9  inches  by  9  feet 
2  inches,  and  two  bedrooms,  each  14  feet  9  inches  by  about  12  feet. 

The  ceilings  are  8  feet  8  inches  high.  The  rentals  per  month  are  12 
francs  ($2.32).  At  least  double  this  price  is  exacted  by  private  owners 
of  similar  dwellings  in  the  neighborhood.  The  company  makes  abate¬ 
ments  of  rent  to  workingmen  who  have  been  in  its  service  for  specified 
periods  and  have  families  of  a  certain  size.  This  plan  starts  with  men 
who  have  served  seven  years  and  have  two  children,  or  one  year  with  six 
children,  who  are  entitled  to  25  per  cent  reduction,  and  goes  up  to  100  per 
cent  reduction — that  is,  free  rental  in  the  case  of  employees  serving  ten 
years  and  having  six  children  or  twenty-eight  years  with  two  children. 
These  abatements  are  made  with  the  understanding  that  whenever  a 
child  works  the  number  of  the  family  is  considered  to  have  been 
diminished  by  two.  Payments  are  made  regularly  throughout  the  year  j 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  one-half  of  the  sum  remitted  is  returned 
to  the  tenant;  the  other  half  is  deposited  in  the  savings  bank  to  the 
account  of  the  tenant,  where  it  must  remain  for  five  years. 


Ground  floor.  Second  floor. 

HOUSE  OF  SOLVAY  AND  COMPANY,  VAR  ANQEVILLE-DOM  BASLE,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  61 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


351 


The  original  cost  of  one  of  these  houses,  with  land,  was  about  3,860 
francs  ($744.98).  So  many  houses  were  furnished  free  of  rent  that  in 
1889,  out  of  285  then  built,  costing  1,340,000  francs  ($258,620)  the  rental 
income  was  received  from  only  900,000  francs  ($173,700)  of  this  value; 
in  other  words,  houses  costing  440,000  francs  ($84,920)  were  given  free 
of  rent.  The  gross  rental  is  less  than  2  per  cent  on  the  capital  invested. 
Working  people  may  buy  the  houses  they  rent,  or  they  may  borrow 
money  from  the  company  at  2  per  cent  with  which  to  build  to  suit  them¬ 
selves;  or  when  owning  land  of  one-fifth  of  the  value  of  their  proposed 
property,  they  may  borrow  at  2  per  cent  up  to  2,500  francs  ($482.50). 
In  the  latter  case  the  company  takes  a  mortgage  on  the  property,  which 
is  liquidated  in  installments  extending  over  twelve  years  or  less.  In 
return  of  loans  the  workingman  may,  at  any  time,  make  additional 
payments,  the  amounts  thus  paid  in  bearing  interest  at  3  per  cent.  If 
he  leaves  the  service  of  his  employer  he  may  continue  the  payments  on 
his  debt,  but  4  per  cent  interest  will  be  charged.  If  by  death  or  for  any_ 
other  reason  the  house  becomes  the  property  of  a  person  not  in  the  serv¬ 
ice  of  the  company  the  latter  may  demand  the  immediate  payment  of 
the  balance  due,  or  where  it  permits  the  continuance  of  payments  by 
installments,  5  per  cent  interest  must  be  paid.  Where  houses  are  let, 
rent  is  payable  fortnightly  and  deducted  from  wages.  Discharge  or 
voluntary  termination  of  service  involves  the  immediate  vacation  of  a 
rented  house,  there  being  a  clause  in  the  contract  to  this  effect. 

This  company  has,  in  addition,  established  certain  other  institutions 
for  the  benefit  of  its  employees,  the  most  important  of  which  are — 
medical  service,  with  aid  in  case  of  injury  or  sickness;  free  medicines 
to  all  persons  in  the  families  of  those  who  have  been  more  than  two 
years  in  the  service  of  the  company,  and  in  case  of  workingmen  under 
two  years’  service,  at  33£  per  cent  reduction  from  the  regular  rate  for 
himself  and  at  20  per  cent  reduction  for  any  member  of  his  family;  a 
hospital  and  visiting  nurse;  plain  and  mineral  baths  for  employees  and 
their  families;  insurance  against  accident  without  cost  to  workingmen; 
a  relief  fund;  a  savings  bank;  indemnity  during  temporary  military 
service;  garden  lands  for  rent  at  a  low  figure;  scholarships  for  chil¬ 
dren  of  workingmen  who  display  special  aptitudes  and  wish  to  attend 
the  industrial  school  in  Nancy;  old  age  pensions. 

M.  MENIER,  NOISIEL. 

This  gentleman  has  erected  houses  comprising  295  tenements,  each 
house,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  containing  two  tenements,  for  the 
employees  of  his  factory.  The  object  has  not  been  a  commercial  one, 
but,  while  asking  the  same  rent  that  would  be  paid  for  much  inferior 
accommodation  in  the  village,  he  seeks  small  direct  return,  knowing 
well  that  the  improvement  to  the  tenant  means  a  clear  economic  gain 
to  himself. 


352  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  houses  each  have  a  frontage  of  about  26  feet  3  inches  and  a 
depth  of  45  feet  11  inches.  They  are  situated  on  lots  having  98  feet  5 
inches  frontage  and  equal  depth,  leaving  open  space  at  the  side  and 
rear,  which  is  used  chiefly  for  a  vegetable  garden.  The  buildings  are 
two  stories  high,  and  are  constructed  of  brick  upon  a  foundation  of 
rough  stone.  The  flooring  is  laid  upon  iron  beams  filled  in  with  brick 
and  mortar,  and  the  roofing  is  of  tiles  and  the  chimneys  of  brick. 
There  is  a  cellar  under  each  kitchen  paved  with  packed  clay,  with  an 
entrance  at  the  rear  of  the  building. 

The  accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  62  A,  62  B,  and  62  0)  show  the 
arrangement  of  houses  and  gardens,  the  front  and  side  elevation,  and 
the  ground  and  second  floor  plan  of  the  type  of  houses  described. 

The  houses  are,  as  a  rule,  for  two  families,  but  each  family  has  a 
separate  entrance.  Every  family  has  a  separate  water-closet,  situated 
outside  the  building  and  connected  with  a  large  drain  pipe  which  runs 
in  the  rear  of  all  the  houses.  A  reservoir  at  the  upper  end  of  this  pipe 
furnishes  a  strong  flow  of  water  several  times  during  the  day,  keeping 
it  clean.  Water  is  not  brought  into  the  houses,  but  hydrants  in  the 
street  furnish  an  unlimited  supply.  A  range  is  placed  in  each  kitchen, 
and  a  shed  is  erected  as  an  annex  in  the  rear  from  which  a  door  opens 
into  the  kitchen.  This  is  utilized  for  storage  of  wood,  for  washing,  etc. 
There  is  a  roomy  closet  in  each  kitchen  under  the  stairway.  There 
is  also  considerable  space  in  the  attics  which  may  be  utilized  for  storage 
or  for  drying  clothes.  Grates  are  found  in  two  of  the  three  bed- 
rooms  of  each  tenement.  The  kitchens  are  paved  with  tiles;  the  other, 
rooms  with  small  blocks  of  wood.  Kitchens  and  halls  are  plastered  and 
painted;  the  other  rooms  are  neatly  papered,  and  the  fireplaces  are  in 
a  measure  ornamental.  The  streets  are  32  feet  10  inches  broad  and  are 
well  kept,  lighted  by  gas,  and  have  a  complete  system  of  shade  trees. 
The  brick  garden  walls  are  2  feet  7  inches  high,  surmounted  by  an  iron 
fence  of  equal  height.  Each  house  is  divided  into  tenements  by  a  wall 
running  through  its  center  at  right  angles  to  the  street.  Each  tene¬ 
ment  has  two  entrances  at  the  side  next  the  garden — one  to  the 
front  room  and  one  to  the  shed.  A  door  from  the  kitchen  leads  to  the 
front  room  and  a  stairway  from  the  kitchen  to  the  chamber.  All  the 
windows  have  shutters.  While  the  houses  are  not  varied  in  architec¬ 
ture,  nevertheless  their  surroundings  present  a  very  attractive  appear¬ 
ance.  The  cubic  air  space  of  a  kitchen  and  three  bedrooms  is  approx¬ 
imately  5,125  feet. 

The  rental  of  a  typical  tenement  is  150  francs  ($28.95)  per  year.  The 
earnings  of  heads  of  families  who  are  employees  in  M.  Menier’s  choc¬ 
olate  factory  vary  from  140  to  200  francs  ($27.02  to  $38.60)  per  month. 
The  rent  consumes  from  a  tenth  to  a  twelfth  of  the  earnings  of  the  head 
of  the  family.  In  addition  to  the  earnings  of  heads  of  families,  wives 
earn  from  60  to  95  francs  ($11.58  to  $18.34)  per  month  in  the  factory, 
and  the  children  over  14  years  of  age  a  respectable  sum. 


PLAN  OF  HOUSES  AND  GARDENS  OF  M.  MENIER,  NOISIEL,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  62  a. 


Front  elevation. 


HOUSE  OF  M.  MENIER,  NOISIEL,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  62  b. 


HOUSE  OF  M.  MENIER,  NOISIEL,  FRANCE 

Plan  No.  62  c. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  353 

The  houses  cost  about  10,000  francs  ($1,030)  each.  Rentals  are 
therefore  fixed  on  the  basis  of  3  per  cent  gross. 

The  land  tax  is  15.25  francs  ($2.94),  and  the  rate  levied  for  doors 
and  windows  is  18.72  francs  ($3.61)  per  annum.  Taxes,  as  well  as  all 
other  expenses,  which  it  is  calculated  amount  to  one-half  of  the  gross 
reutal,  are  borne  by  the  proprietor. 

The  proprietor  pays  all  repairs  and  taxes,  furnishes  water,  provides 
free  schools  for  children,  free  medical  attendance  and  relief,  besides 
baths  and  literary  anti  musical  entertainments.  * 

The  houses  were  first  habitable  in  August,  1875.  The  present  value 
of  the  housing  property  is  placed  at  about  1,800,000  francs  ($347,400). 
Tenants  are  not  allowed  to  become  purchasers,  for  the  reason  that  the 
proprietor  believes  that  the  houses  should  not  be  put  to  any  other  use 
than  that  of  giving  shelter  to  his  own  working  people.  It  would  be 
impossible  for  him  to  control  their  use,  he  thinks,  if  he  should  permit 
their  acquisition  by  others. 

The  houses  are  fully  occupied.  Rents  are  paid  monthly,  being  de¬ 
ducted  from  wages.  The  lease  contract  is  verbal,  not  written.  Rents 
have  neither  advanced  nor  declined  since  the  beginning.  About  1,400 
people  in  all  are  housed  in  these  model  dwellings.  In  order  to  secure 
stability  in  the  personnel  of  the  establishment,  rents  are  lowered, 
according  to  a  fixed  scale,  after  ten,  fifteen,  and  twenty  years’  service. 
It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  the  average  duration  of 
tenancy  is  exceedingly  high.  Subletting  or  receiving  boarders  may  bo 
allowed. 

Baths,  where  hot  and  cold  water  is  supplied,  laundries,  a  public  bak¬ 
ery,  library  with  1,200  choice  books,  meeting  room,  concert  hall,  and 
clubroom  are  maintained  for  the  use  of  tenants.  These,  together  with 
medical  aid  and  maintenance  of  schools,  cost  about  53,500  francs 
($10,325.50)  annually. 

There  is  a  large  open  space  in  the  village  planted  with  trees.  Here 
are  situated  the  schools,  coojierative  store,  with  bakery  in  the  rear, 
meeting  halls,  restaurants,  where  workingmen  who  are  not  tenants 
get  their  meals,  the  refectories,  the  hospital,  the  library,  etc.  All  these 
institutions  are  maintained  at  the  entire  expense  of  the  proprietor. 
Schools  are  not  even  aided  by  the  state  tax.  The  school  buildings 
are  admirably  situated,  and  have  every  facility,  especially  large  play¬ 
grounds  in  the  rear,  paved  with  wood,  where  boys  and  girls  occupy 
themselves  at  games  in  separate  grounds.  A  savings  bank  has  been 
opened,  which  gives  6  per  cent  interest  on  deposits.  Provisions  are  sold 
at  cost.  The  philanthropy  of  the  proprietor  has  carried  him  into  these 
various  enterprises,  but  the  results  which  have  been  reached,  he  be¬ 
lieves,  justify  the  economic  expenditures  which  they  have  necessitated. 

BELFORT  CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  BELFORT. 

This  company  (Soci6t6  Belfortaine  des  Habitations  &  Bon  March6) 
has  built  houses  with  the  purpose  of  selling  them  to  tenants  on  fixed 
H.  Ex.  354 - 23 


354  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


conditions.  There  are  different  kinds  of  bnildings,  but  a  single  type, 
which  contains  four  separate  tenements,  is  chosen  for  description.  One 
of  these  buildings  occupies  about  14  per  cent  of  a  lot  of  10,915  square 
feet,  an  open  space,  which  is  used  as  a  garden,  being  left  at  the  front, 
rear,  and  sides.  The  building  is  of  two  stories  and  a  garret,  and  is 
built  of  calcareous  rag  stone  covered  with  a  coating  of  cement  or 
mortar.  The  exterior  walls  are  19  inches  thick.  There  is  a  cellar  with 
a  floor  of  gravel.  A  single  street  entrance  serves  for  two  families. 
There  is  a  privy  situated  inside  the  building  for  every  two  families. 
The  soil  pipes  are  of  cast  iron  and  are  ventilated  from  the  roof.  The 
appliances  also  are  of  the  same  material,  except  the  bowl,  which  is 
enameled.  The  pit  is  ventilated  by  a  special  pipe  in  the  wall  open¬ 
ing  at  the  roof.  It  is  outside  the  foundation  wall,  and  the  refuse  falls 
in  barrels,  which  may  be  taken  away  at  convenient  periods.  Waste 
water  is  carried  off  through  trapped  pipes  to  a  sewer  passing  back  of 
the  building.  The  tenements  are  heated  by  wood  or  coal  stoves  and 
lighted  principally  by  oil  lamps.  Shutters  have  been  put  on  the  first 
floor  windows  and  curtains  in  the  second  story.  There  is  a  porch  over 
the  entrance.  Each  tenement  contains  two  rooms  and  a  kitchen.  The 
rooms  are  14  feet  11  inches  by  11  feet  6  inches  and  9  feet  10  inches  by 
8  feet  7  inches.  The  kitchen  is  11  feet  by  9  feet  10  inches.  Ceilings 
are  8  feet  10  inches  high.  There  is  also  a  small  attic  chamber  and  a 
storeroom. 

The  cost  of  the  lot  upon  which  this  building  is  situated  was  660  francs 
($127.38),  of  the  building  15,065.25  francs  ($2,907.59).  This  company 
has  but  recently  commenced  operations,  the  first  building  having  been 
opened  for  habitation  September  1,  1892.  It  is  too  early  therefore  to 
give  the  financial  results  which  have  been  attained.  At  the  time  the 
inquiry  was  made  nine  buildings  had  been  constructed,  while  fifteen 
others  were  projected  on  the  same  plot  of  land.  The  original  cost  oi 
the  land  built  upon  was  14,834.95  francs  ($2,863.15);  the  original  cost 
of  the  buildings  was  113,572  francs  ($21,919.40). 

Tenants  are  encouraged  to  become  proprietors  of  the  houses  they 
occupy.  The  type  of  building  which  has  just  been  described  is  in 
reality  a  double  house,  each  part  consisting  of  two  tenements,  situated 
one  above  the  other,  which  may  be  used  either  as  one  four-room  tene 
ment  or  as  two  two-room  tenements,  kitchens  not  included.  Whei 
sold,  one  half,  which  is  quite  distinct  in  all  its  appointments  from  tin 
other  half,  brings  9,350  francs  ($1,804.55).  The  purchase  money  h 


payable  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  under  the  following  conditions: 

Conditions. 

15-year 

payment 

20-year 

payment 

Payment  on  talcing  possession . . 

$106. 15 
13.51 
162. 12 
6. 18 

$106.1 

11.5 

138.9 

6.1 

Monthly  payment^including  rent  and  installment . . . . . 

Yearly  payment . . ........................ _ ...................... 

Taxes”  and  fire  insurance . . . . 

'  w " 


HOUSE  OF  THE  SAINT-QOBAIN  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  SAINT-QOBAIN.  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  63. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


355 


A  tenant  wlio  wishes  to  become  proprietor  in  fifteen  years  pays  alto¬ 
gether  about  12, COO  francs  ($2,431.80)  in  rent  and  installments.  Where 
he  is  simply  a  tenant  he  would  pay  about  9,000  francs  ($1,737)  for  rent 
alone  during  the  same  period.  In  a  twenty-year  term  he  pays  about 
14,400  francs  ($2,779.20)  for  rent  and  installments.  Had  he  continued  a 
tenant  he  would  have  paid  12,000  francs  ($2,316)  for  rent  alone.  Five 
per  cent  interest  is  the  rate  provided  for  on  all  payments  to  the  com¬ 
pany.  Reservations  in  the  deed  are  made  compelling  the  tenant  pro¬ 
prietor  to  keep  the  house  in  good  condition  and  the  garden  in  a  state  of 
cultivation.  The  right  of  building  on  the  vacant  space  is  also  surren¬ 
dered.  The  land  tax  amounts  to  about  8.40  francs  ($1.62)  annually  per 
dwelling,  the  door  and  window  tax  to  10.85  francs  ($2.09),  and  the  regis¬ 
tration  of  lease  tax  to  63  centimes  (12  cents). 

The  occupations  and  earnings  of  heads  of  families  occupying  the  group 
of  model  dwellings  are  as  follows : 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OP  HEADS  OF  TENANT  FAMILIES  IN 
HOUSES  OF  BELFORT  CHEAP  DWELLINGS  COMPANY. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

animal 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Blacksmiths,  locksmiths,  fit- 

Mason . 

1 

$194. 45 

ters,  etc . 

8 

$270. 36 

1 

299  15 

Carpenters . 

2 

329.  07 

1 

179  49 

Fireman . 

1 

251.  29 

3 

199.43 

House  painter . 

1 

179. 49 

Laborers  in  industrial  e3tah- 

lishments . 

6 

185. 47 

Rentals  are  about  the  same  as  for  other  accommodation  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood,  which  is  inferior  in  quality.  The  rentals  consume  about  20 
per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  tenants.  Six  heads  of  tenant  families  live 
under  half  a  mile  from  their  work,  17  between  1  and  2  miles,  and  1 
between  2  and  3  miles.  As  there  are  three  distinct  types  of  dwellings 
the  houses  in  this  group  are  varied  architecturally. 

SAINT-GOBAIN  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  SAINT-GOB  AIN. 

This  organization  (Compagnie  de  Saint-Gobain),  which  is  one  of 
most  honorable  antiquity,  commenced  the  construction  of  dwelling 
houses  for  its  working  people  in  1764.  It  has  pursued  the  policy  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  at  Saint-Gobain  and  Cliauny,  and  up  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  time  527  houses  have  been  constructed,  which  are  now  rented  to 
workingmen,  while  551  workingmen  have  become  proprietors  through 
the  company’s  assistance. 

The  types  of  houses  are  quite  diverse.  Much  attention  has  been  paid 
to  sanitary  conditions,  and  the  habitations  are  most  desirable.  The 
houses  are  built  in  groups  of  from  four  to  eight  dwellings  on  different 
sections  of  the  land  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  factories.  The  type  of 
house  which  is  chosen  for  description  (plan  No.  63)  is  of  two  stories  with 
a  cellar  and  gives  accommodation  to  four  families.  It  is  constructed  of 


356  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


stone  in  some  instances ;  in  others  of  brick.  There  is  an  open  space  on 
all  sides  of  the  house  equal  to  about  four-fifths  of  the  entire  lot.  There 
are  gardens  at  the  front  and  rear.  Each  tenement  consists  of  a  kitchen 
16  feet  4  inches  by  15  feet  9  inches,  two  bedrooms,  each  10  feet  4  inches 
by  7  feet  9  inches,  and  a  scullery  15  feet  7  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches. 
Ceilings  are  9  feet  high.  The  rentals  per  tenement  are  from  7  to  10 
francs  ($1.35  to  $1.93)  per  month. 

The  company  makes  no  separate  calculation  as  to  the  financial  returns 
from  its  housing  enterprises,  believing  that  it  is  recouped  for  a  nom¬ 
inally  small  return  by  the  extra  assiduity  and  contentment  of  its  work¬ 
ing  people.  It  has  also  inaugurated  for  the  benefit  of  its  employees  a 
pension  fund,  a  medical  service,  an  indemnity  fund  in  case  of  accident, 
a  sick  relief  fund,  savings  banks,  cooperative  stores,  day  nurseries, 
schools,  and  churches.  The  social  influences  of  these  accessories  may, 
perhaps,  be  gauged  in  a  measure  by  the  following  statistics:  Out  of 
2,194  working  people,  married  and  single,  129  of  whom  were  females, 
55  per  cent  have  been  in  the  employment  of  the  company  less  than  ten 
years,  21  per  cent  from  ten  to  twenty  years,  14  per  cent  from  twenty  to 
thirty  years,  and  10  per  cent  thirty  years  and  over.  Thirty-one  of  this 
number  have  completed  between  forty  and  fifty  years  of  service. 

MINING  COMPANY  OF  ANZIN,  ANZIN. 

The  Mining  Company  of  Anzin  (Compagnie  des  Mines  <P  Anzin)  is 
of  ancient  foundation,  having  commenced  business  in  November,  1757. 
Its  operations  to-day  are  very  large,  covering  nearly  70,000  acres. 
Numerous  enterprises  having  in  view  the  welfare  of  employees  have 
been  founded  and  are  successfully  operated  by  this  company.  Besides 
its  houses,  which  are  either  rented  or  sold,  industrial  education,  a  sav¬ 
ings  bank,  cooperative  society,  sick  benefit,  pension  fund,  mutual  aid 
fund,  indemnity  to  the  wife  while  the  husband  is  called  away  to  military 
service,  churches,  and  medical  service  (hospitals,  salaries  of  physicians, 
etc.)  rejDresent  its  principal  activities.  The  cost  to  the  company  of 
these  institutions  for  the  welfare  of  its  working  people  in  1888  was 
1,567,757.22  francs  ($302,577.14). 

A  typical  house  (plans  Nos.  64  A  and  64  B)  is  selected  for  description. 
It  covers  14  per  cent  of  a  lot  which  has  a  frontage  of  32  feet  9  inches 
and  a  depth  of  114  feet  10  inches.  The  open  space,  which  is  in  the  rear 
and  at  the  sides,  is  used  mostly  for  garden  purposes.  The  house  is 
constructed  of  brick,  with  exterior  walls  having  a  thickness  of  14  inches. 
No  special  precautions  have  been  taken  in  the  constructive  features  to 
secure  fireproof  quality,  since  the  materials  are  in  themselves  almost 
incombustible.  The  house  has  a  cellar  paved  with  hard  bricks,  which 
is  used  for  storage  of  fuel,  etc.  Only  one  family  occupies  a  house.  No 
special  facilities  for  ventilation  have  been  provided  as  each  house  is 
detached.  The  house  has  a  privy,  situated  outside,  and  ventilated 
simply  by  two  windows.  Garbage  is  removed  every  day  by  a  special 


HOUSE  OF  THE  MINING  COMPANY  OF  ANZIN,  ANZIN,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  64  b. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


357 


service  provided  by  the  corporation.  Waste  water  drains  into  the 
street.  Heating  is  done  by  fireplaces  or  stoves,  and  lighting  by  oil 
lamps.  Tenants  supply  their  own  facilities  for  cooking.  There  are  no 
pantries  or  clothespresses. 

The  house  is  not  provided  with  porches  or  verandas,  neither  is  it 
conspicuous  for  exterior  decorations  of  any  sort.  Windows  on  the 
first  floor  are  provided  with  shutters.  The  interior  walls  have  been 
whitewashed. 

The  kitchen  of  the  typical  dwelling  is  17  feet  1  inch  by  14  feet  1  inch  ; 
the  living  room  11  feet  by  10  feet  5  inches;  the  two  bedrooms  13  feet 
9  inches  by  13  feet  and  17  feet  5  inches  by  11  feet  9  inches,  respectively. 
The  hall  is  10  feet  5  inches  by  2  feet  9  inches.  The  hall,  kitchen,  and 
living  room  are  situated  on  the  ground  floor,  and  have  ceilings  9  feet 
2  inches  high.  The  bedrooms  are  in  the  upper  story,  and  are  8  feet  2 
inches  high. 

A  miner  living  in  one  of  these  dwellings  earns  about  1,350  francs 
($260.55)  annually.  The  total  family  earnings  would  probably  approx¬ 
imate  2,250  francs  ($434.25).  The  annual  rental  paid  for  the  house  is 
66  francs  ($12.74),  while  the  probable  rent  for  similar  accommodation  in 
the  vicinity  would  be  216  francs  ($41.69).'  The  original  cost  of  the  lot 
was  300  francs  ($57.90),  and  of  this  type  of  house  3,100  francs  ($598.30). 

Only  workmen  employed  by  the  company  may  occupy  the  houses. 
Rents  are  deducted  from  wages  monthly.  The  houses  are  always  full. 
No  formal  lease  is  entered  into.  Rentals  are  fixed  at  about  3  per  cent 
of  the  original  cost  of  land  and  buildings,  and  have  neither  advanced 
nor  declined  for  a  number  of  years.  They  are  now  about  5  per  cent  of 
the  earnings  of  the  head  of  the  family.  The  average  duration  of 
tenancy  is  about  five  years.  Tenants  are  not  allowed  to  sublet  or  to 
receive  boarders.  The  only  annex  for  the  common  use  of  tenants  in 
this  group  of  model  dwellings  is  a  laundry.  Houses  are  all  of  the  same 
type,  and  are  monotonous  in  their  uniformity. 

Houses  are  sold  to  working  people,  ninety-three  having  been  so  dis¬ 
posed  of  up  to  1889.  Advances  have  also  been  made  to  working  people 
who  wish  to  build  their  own  houses.  Up  to  1889  1,446,604  francs 
($279,194.57)  were  advanced,  of  which  sum  101,140.09  francs  ($19,520.04) 
only  remained  to  be  repaid.  In  this  way  working  people  have  been 
able  to  build,  according  to  their  own  tastes,  741  houses.  Up  to  1889 
this  company  owned  2,628  houses  which  it  rented  to  its  employees. 

BLANZY  MINING  COMPANY,  BLANZY. 

This  important  company  commenced  housing  operations  in  the  year 
1834.  It  has  since  built  over  1,000  houses  for  its  working  people.  The 
sums  spent  for  this  purpose  amount  to  2,148,703.69  francs  ($414,699.81), 
while  the  annual  rent  roll  is  at  present  38,226.15  francs  ($7,377.65). 
Repairs,  taxes,  and  expense  of  management  absorb  the  whole  of  this. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  secure  a  commercial  return  from  the  property. 


358  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  company  also  sells  land  on  time  payments  at  a  low  figure  and 
advances  1,000  francs  ($193)  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  a  house. 
Repayment  is  provided  for  within  ten  years,  without  interest.  In  this 
manner  500,000  francs  ($96,500)  had  been  loaned  up  to  1889;  81,711.85 
francs  ($15,770.39)  of  this  sum  remained  to  be  repaid,  and  it  was  found 
that  1,079  working  people,  being  29  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  in 
the  service  of  the  company,  were  proprietors  of  the  houses  in  which  they 
lived.  The  houses  rented  by  the  company  shelter  two  families,  as  a 
rule.  There  are  four  rooms  to  each  tenement,  and  the  annual  rental  is 
72  francs  ($13.90)  per  tenement.  Only  about  one-sixth  of  the  area  of 
th6  land  is  built  upon. 

MINING  COMPANY  OF  LENS,  LENS. 

The  group  of  model  dwellings  of  the  Mining  Company  of  Lens  ( Soci - 
Std  des  Mines  de  Lens),  known  as  the  Cit6  Saint  Edouard,  contains  171 
houses  of  the  particular  type  described  in  the  context  and  shown  in 
the  plans.  A  little  over  10  per  cent  of  a  lot  containing  5,920  square 
feet  is  occupied  by  the  building.  The  open  space  is  used  as  a  kitchen 
garden.  The  house  is  of  ope  story  and  attic,  and  is  built  of  brick,  l 
Particular  care  has  been  taken  in  the  construction  of  chimneys  to  make 
them  fireproof.  A  small  cellar  occupies  the  space  under  one  room  of 
the  ground  floor.  The  house  is  single  and  detached.  It  contains,  in 
addition  to  the  cellar,  two  rooms  and  a  staircase  corridor  on  the  ground 
floor,  and  on  the  attic  floor  three  bedrooms,  one  of  which  is  used  as  a 
garret.  The  court  is  walled  in  and  paved  with  bricks,  and  beyond  is 
situated  an  out-house  containing  a  privy,  accommodation  for  domestic 
animals,  a  henhouse,  and  a  small  hayloft.  The  garden  is  closed  in  by 
a  hedge  and  is  usually  planted  with  fruit  trees  and  vegetables.  Rain 
and  waste  water  is  collected  and  conducted  by  a  gutter  to  a  cesspool 
in  the  garden  some  distance  from  the  house.  The  water  is  taken  from 
hydrants  in  the  street.  Coal  for  heating  is  furnished  by  the  company 
free  of  cost.  Houses  are  lighted  by  kerosene  lamps,  as  a  rule,  but  the 
company  contemplates  putting  in  electric  lights.  Each  room  on  the 
first  floor  has  a  fireplace.  First  story  windows  are  provided  with  shut¬ 
ters.  The  exterior  of  the  house  is  covered  with  mortar,  painted  in  two 
colors  in  such  manner  as  to  give  a  pleasing  appearance.  The  interior 
is  painted  in  stone  color. 

The  main  living  room,  which  serves  also  as  a  kitfchen,  is  13  feet  5 
inches  by  13  feet  1  inch.  Adjoining  it  is  a  bedroom,  designed  for  par¬ 
ents,  16  feet  2  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches.  The  rooms  above  for  the  rest 
of  the  family  are  16  feet  2  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches,  13  feet  5  inches 
by  7  feet  11  inches,  and  9  feet  10  inches  by  7  feet  11  inches,  respec¬ 
tively.  There  is  also  a  small  pantry  at  the  entrance  to  the  stairway. 
The  height  of  the  first  story  is  9  feet  6  inches,  and  of  the  story  above 
7  feet  3  inches. 


SAINT  EDOUARD,  GROUP  NO  12,  MINING  COMPANY  OF  LENS,  LENS,  FRANCE. 
Plan  No.  65  a. 


I 


Front  elevation. 


HOUSE  IN  SAINT  EDOUARD,  GROUP  No.  12,  MINING  COMPANY  OF  LENS,  LENS,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  65  B. 


r.~  ~~J 


Side  elevation. 


/a' s" 


Attic. 


HOUSE  IN  SAINT  EDOUARD,  GROUP  No.  12,  MINING  COMPANY  OF  LENS,  LENS,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  65  c. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  PARIS,  LYONS  AND  MEDITERRANEAN  RAILWAY  COMPANY,  LAROCHE,  FRANCE. 

Plan  No.  66. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


359 


The  annual  earnings  of  a  miner  occupying  one  of  these  houses  is 
about  1,G65.96  francs  ($321.53).  The  budget  of  receipts  for  the  total 
family  is  about  2,025.77  francs  ($390.97).  The  annual  rental  of  the 
house  is  6G  francs  ($12.74).  Similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity, 
furnished  by  private  parties,  would  cost  about  300  francs  ($57.90). 

The  original  cost  of  a  lot  upon  which  one  of  these  houses  is  built  was 
330  francs  ($63.G9).  The  house  itself  cost  4,000  francs  ($772).  The 
land  tax  amounts  to  50  centimes  (10  cents)  per  year,  the  building  tax  to 
6.50  francs  ($1.25),  and  the  door  and  window  tax  to  9.25  francs  ($1.79). 
All  are  paid  by  the  proprietor.  But  1  per  cent  of  the  dwellings  were 
unoccupied  during  the  fiscal  year  to  which  this  return  refers.  Rents 
are  called  for  monthly  by  an  authorized  agent  of  the  corporation.  In 
case  of  nonpayment  the  rent  is  deducted  from  wages.  There  were  no 
losses  ou  account  of  arrearages  during  the  fiscal  year.  If  a  workman 
quits  the  company’s  employment  and  refuses  to  vacate  the  house  he  is 
ejected.  There  is  no  lease  or  contract  of  rental  entered  into  between 
the  company  and  tenant.  Rents  have  remained  stationary  since  the 
first  houses  were  constructed.  Plans  of  a  typical  house  are  shown,  as 
well  as  the  general  plan  of  the  property  (plans  Nos.  G5  A,  65  B,  and  G5  C). 

PARIS,  LYONS  AND  MEDITERRANEAN  RAILWAY  COMPANY, 

LAROCHE. 

Thirty-three  buildings  for  employees  have  been  erected,  at  a  total  cost 
of  506,000  francs  ($97,658),  upon  which  about  31  per  cent  gross  rental 
is  received.  The  buildings  are  of  different  types,  the  prevailing  one 
sheltering  four  families.  They  are  built  of  rough  stone,  ornamented 
or  trimmed  with  bricks.  Only  about  10  per  cent  of  the  lot  is  built 
upon.  Each  house  has  two  stories  and  a  cellar  paved  with  cement. 
Each  family  has  a  private  entrance,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying 
plan  (plan  No.  66). 

There  are  three  rooms  to  a  tenement,  each  one  being  about  13  feet  2 
inches  by  11  feet  6  inches  in  size.  The  ceilings  are  9  feet  10  inches 
high.  The  annual  rental  for  accommodation  of  this  sort  is  140  francs 
($27.02),  while  fairly  similar  living  places  in  the  vicinity  would  cost 
about  160  francs  ($30.88).  Rents  are  payable  monthly,  and  are  deducted 
from  wages.  Houses  are  occupied  principally  by  foremen  and  subfore¬ 
men  of  track  workers. 

NORTHERN  RAILWAY,  BOURGET. 

This  corporation  (Gliemin  deFer  du  Nord)  has  spent  1,700,000  francs 
($328,100)  for  the  construction  of  workingmen’s  homes.  Its  estimated 
annual  return  is  about  2%  per  cent  gross.  There  are  seventeen  houses 
in  the  group  at  Bourget,  which  were  opened  for  habitation  in  1883.  A 
ty£)ieal  house  contains  four  four-room  tenements.  The  rentals  paid 
amount  to  144  francs  ($27.79)  per  tenement  annually.  The  cost  of  the 
lot  for  each  house,  containing  9,644  square  feet,  less  than  one-fourth  of 


360  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

which  has  been  built  upon,  was  6, GOO  francs  ($1,273.80) ;  the  cost  of  the 
house  was  19,000  francs  ($3,667).  The  houses  are  two  stories  in  height. 
A  tenement  contains  a  kitchen  and  three  bedrooms,  each  of  which  is  13 
feet  1  inch  by  9  feet  10  inches  in  size.  The  houses  are  built  of  rough 
stone,  and  are  completely  surrounded  by  gardens.  Each  tenant  has  his 
own  outside  entrance.  The  houses  are  situated  on  the  back-to  back 
principle,  so  that  through  ventilation  is  impossible.  Each  tenement  has 
a  privy,  for  the  exclusive  use  of  its  occupants,  outside  the  lodging. 
A  small  annex,  7  feet  3  inches  by  12  feet  2  inches,  belongs  to  each  tene¬ 
ment  and  serves  as  a  storage  room  and  shelter  for  the  privy.  Shutters 
have  been  placed  at  all  the  windows,  and  a  small  awning  over  the 
entrance.  There  are  no  exterior  decorations,  except  those  incident  to 
the  form  of  architecture  chosen,  and  inside  carved  wooden  fireplaces 
and  painted  walls  comprise  the  aesthetic  effects  which  have  been 
attempted. 

M.  SCHNEIDER,  LE  CREUZOT. 

The  official  report  of  the  section  of  social  economics  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889  states  that  M.  Schneider,  the  head  of  the  Creuzot 
steel  works,  has  had  1,200  houses  constructed,  each  containing,  as  a 
rule,  a  ground  floor  with  three  rooms  and  each  having  a  garden  of  6,458 
square  feet.  The  houses  are  rented  to  the  best  working  people,  and 
rents  vary  from  60  to  9G  francs  ($11.58  to  $18.53)  per  annum. 

D.  WALTER-SEITZ,  GRANGES. 

Housing  operations  were  begun  by  this  philanthropic  manufacturer 
in  1875.  Thirty-seven  houses  have  been  constructed,  26  of  three  rooms 
and  11  of  four  rooms  each,  at  a  total  cost  of  between  90,000  and  100,000 
francs  ($17,370  and  $19,300).  They  are  rented  and  not  sold.  The 
annual  rentals  charged  are  117  francs  ($22.58)  each.  Similar  accom¬ 
modation  in  the  vicinity  would  cost  from  150  to  180  francs  ($28.95  to 
$34.74).  The  houses  each  contain  three  rooms  with  cellar  and  attic. 
They  are  surrounded  by  gardens  each  containing  about  5,500  square 
feet.  Houses  are  built  of  stone  and  are  two  stories  high. 

LILLE  REAL  ESTATE  COMPANY. 

In  1867  a  company  (La  Oompagnie  Immobili&re  de  Lille)  was  incorpo¬ 
rated  at  Lille  for  the  purpose  of  providing  cheap  dwellings,  with  a  capi¬ 
tal  stock  of  2,000,000  francs  ($386,000).  Napoleon  ILI  gave  a  subsidy 
of  100,000  francs  ($19,300),  while  the  municipal  council  guaranteed  a  5 
per  cent  dividend.  This  company  has  constructed,  according  to  recent 
statistics,  318  houses,  sheltering  1,810  persons.  The  rental  for  a  one- 
story  house,  designed  to  accommodate  a  single  family,  varies  from  17 
to  20  francs  ($3.28  to  $3.86)  per  month.  Two  hundred  houses  have 
been  sold  on  fifteen  years’  purchase.  The  annual  dividend  of  5  per 
cent  has  been  regularly  paid,  without  any  necessity  of  recurring  to 
the  municipal  guarantee. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


361 


M.  FANIEN,  LILLERS. 

This  gentleman,  who  is  a  large  shoe  manufacturer,  has  constructed 
160  hoises  for  his  work  people.  The  houses  are  of  brick,  most  of  them 
two  stories  high,  with  small  courtyards  or  gardens.  A  privy  is  pro¬ 
vided  for  each  family.  A  sheet-iron  range  is  put  in  each  house. 
Rentals  are  91,  104,  and  130  francs  ($17.56,  $20.07,  and  $25.09)  per 
annum,  according  to  location.  All  of  the  houses  have  five  rooms  each. 
Tenants  are  encouraged  to  become  proprietors  of  the  houses  they 
occupy.  They  may  do  so  upon  the  payment  of  2.75  francs  (53  cents) 
per  week  for  five  hundred  and  twenty  weeks.  M.  Fanien  has  made  4 
per  cent  net  profit  in  connection  with  his  housing  operations.  Rents 
are  payable  weekly,  and  are  deducted  from  wages.  The  houses  are 
situated  on  various  streets,  but  all  are  within  less  than  half  a  mile  from 
the  factory.  Two  bathrooms  have  been  placed  in  the  factory  and  are 
free  to  all  workmen.  Hot  water  is  provided  and  baths  are  ready  for 
use  at  all  times  during  the  day.  By  paying  a  small  fee  to  the  fireman, 
baths  may  be  had  at  other  times  than  during  the  regular  working 
hours  and  on  Sundays. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  are  numerous  model  enterprises 
in  France,  which  have  not  been  mentioned  for  lack  of  space.  The 
principal  of  these  are  situated  at  Amboise,  Amiens,  Bolbec,  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  Clichy,  Epinal,  Flixeeourt,  Fumay,  Havre,  Honfleur,  Le 
Creuzot,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Mouliueaux,  Orleans,  Paris,  Pfastatt, 
Reims,  Romilly,  Rosendael  near  Dunkirk,  Rouen,  Saint-Denis,  Saint- 
Di6,  and  Thaon. 

BELGIUM. 

BUREAU  OF  PUBLIC  RELIEF,  ANTWERP. 

To  furnish  workingmen  with  cheap  and  healthy  homes,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  insure  to  itself  a  reasonable  return  on  its  investment, 
has  been  the  object  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Relief  ( Bureau  de  Bienfai- 
sance)  of  Antwerp  in  constructing  several  groups  of  workingmen’s 
homes.  The  board  of  directors  of  this  organization  possess  consider¬ 
able  capital,  the  revenue  from  which  is  applied  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor  in  various  ways.  They  regard  it  as  ot  double  profit  if  they  can 
aid  the  poor  not  only  in  the  employment  of  the  interest  but  in  the 
investment  of  their  capital  as  well. 

The  Antwerp  Bureau  of  Public  Relief  was  the  first  to  undertake,  on 
any  considerable  scale,  the  wise  policy  of  spending  a  part  of  its 
resources  in  endeavoring  to  prevent  pauperism,  instead  of  dispensing 
the  whole  for  its  relief.  This  idea  was  conceived  as  early  as  1349,  but 
the  first  step  was  not  taken  until  1S60,  when  permission  was  asked  to 
employ  in  this  way  the  sum  awarded  it  in  payment  for  a  large  amount 
of  its  property  expropriated  on  account  of  the  construction  of  new  for¬ 
tifications.  The  bureau  possessed  a  suitable  tract  of  land  in  a  part  of 


362  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

Antwerp  occupied  principally  by  the  poorer  people  and  where  unhealthy 
homes  were  increasing.  It  wished  to  demolish  a  number  of  these  latter 
in  order  to  make  new  streets. 

July  3,  1865,  a  royal  decree  authorized  the  construction  of  the  first 
row  of  houses,  forty-one  in  number.  These  were  completed  in  1866  and 
were  promptly  occupied.  Three  more  rows  were  erected  in  the  following 
year.  All  were  completed  by  1S68.  These  houses,  to  the  number  of  167, 
are  built  on  a  dry,  elevated  tract  of  ground  at  the  extremity  of  the  city, 
but  not  far  from  the  industrial  quarters  and  the  new  maritime  construc¬ 
tion  works.  The  land  has  a  total  area  of  2  hectares  (about  5  acres). 
Two  streets  have  been  cut  through,  one  10  meters  (32  feet  10  inches) 
and  the  other  12  meters  (39  feet  4  inches)  broad,  paved,  sewered,  and 
provided  with  sidewalks.  Groups  of  houses  border  on  these  streets, 
and  in  the  middle  is  a  square,  planted  with  trees,  having  an  area  of 
1,000  square  meters  (10,764  square  feet).  The  houses  are  built  close 
to  the  building  line  and  have  gardens  or  courtyards  in  the  rear.  The 
courts  are  10  meters  (32  feet  10  inches)  deep.  The  two  groups  of  houses 
which  form  the  center  have  gardens  back-to-back.  The  public  square, 
which  occupies  the  middle  of  these  two  groups,  is  not  entirely  lined 
with  houses,  and  small  courts  between  the  houses  with  low  walls  allow  , 
circulation  of  air  to  the  interior  courts.  The  accompanying  sketch 
(plan  No.  67)  shows  the  plan  of  a  house  for  two  families. 

Houses  are  built  of  brick  of  a  conspicuous  red;  the  door  sills  are  of 
stone,  and  window  and  door  settings  are  of  bluish  brick.  There  is  a 
pretty  ornamental  ironwork  design  between  the  windows.  At  the 
angles  and  in  the  middle  streets,  as  well  as  fronting  on  the  square,  are 
houses  with  a  higher  elevation  constructed  for  shops.  These,  with 
their  greater  height,  painted  roofs,  and  more  elegant  and  diversified 
fronts,  break  the  monotony  of  the  row  and  present  a  more  attractive 
perspective.  While  this  is,  in  reality,  a  large  settlement  for  poor 
people,  it  hardly  has  the  appearance  of  being  such.  The  streets  are 
broad  and  full  of  life  and  movement,  the  quarters  do  not  seem  isolated, 
and  all  the  small  industries  and  small  commercial  enterprises  are  rep¬ 
resented  and  thrive  here.  A  list  of  occupations  shows  a  multiplicity 
of  trades  and  professions.  Though  the  great  majority  work  elsewhere, 
a  number,  such  as  butchers,  tailors,  shoemakers,  and  carpenters,  carry 
on  their  means  of  livelihood  in  the  houses  they  inhabit. 

A  typical  house  for  one  family  is  two  stories  high,  and  covers  296 
square  feet  of  a  lot  containing  a  total  area  of  646  square  feet.  The  open 
space  is  at  the  rear,  in  the  form  of  a  walled-in  court.  The  latter  serves 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  tenant,  and  is  efficient  in  providing  light 
and  air.  It  is  partially  paved  with  bricks.  There  is  also  a  cellar,  paved 
with  bricks.  The  house  serves  as  the  residence  of  a  single  family,  so 
but  one  street  entrance  is  needed.  Through  ventilation  is  provided. 

A  privy  has  been  placed  in  the  brick  outhouse  erected  in  the  rear  of 


Coui^r 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


363 


the  court.  A  pit  lined  with  cement  receives  the  night  soil,  etc.  This 
is  pumped  out  by  the  city  excavating  apparatus  every  three  or  six 
months,  at  the  proprietor’s  expense.  A  vaulted  cistern  is  situated  in 
the  rear  of  the  house  to  receive  rain  water.  A  well  is  also  provided, 
and  is  used  by  several  tenants  in  common.  Tenants  provide  their  own 
means  of  heating  and  lighting.  Front  doors  and  windows  on  the  first 
floor  are  transomed.  All  rooms  have  chimney  holes.  The  kitchen  floor 
is  paved  with  bricks.  There  are  no  window  shutters,  porches,  or  ver¬ 
andas.  Streets  and  sidewalks  are  paved  with  Belgian  blocks. 

A  single  house  contains  a  kitchen  10  feet  6  inches  by  from  11  feet  6 
inches  to  15  feet  5  inches,  a  small  living  room  4  feet  11  inches  by  11  feet 
6  inches,  one  bedroom  10  feet  6  inches  by  7  feet  7  inches,  and  another 
15  feet  9  inches  by  7  feet  10  inches.  The  ceilings  are  10  feet  10  inches 
in  the  first  story  and  10  feet  8  inches  in  the  second  story.  The  annual 
rental  for  a  house  of  this  kind  is  325  francs  ($02.73).  Similar  accom¬ 
modation  in  the  vicinity  would  probably  cost  about  416  francs  ($80.29) 
per  annum.  The  original  cost  of  the  lot  for  this  single  house  was  350 
francs  ($67.55),  and  the  cost  of  construction  was  3,050  francs  ($588.65). 

The  first  house  belonging  to  the  bureau  was  opened  for  habitation  in 
1866.  It  now  possesses  493  houses,  in  four  different  groups.  Most  of 
them  are  four-room  houses,  and  are  each  occupied  by  a  single  family. 
Nearly  all  the  rest  are  six-room  houses,  there  being  two  families  to  a 
house.  There  are  a  few  houses  for  four  families.  Fifty-eight  houses 
have  stores  or  shops  on  the  ground  floor. 

The  total  original  cost  of  the  property  was  3,581,653.23  francs 
($691,259.07).  There  was  received  as  rent  during  the  last  fiscal  year 
for  which  returns  were  available  182,304.99  francs  ($35,184.86).  The 
annual  net  profit  on  fiscal  operations  has  been  about  equal  to  that 
derived  by  the  average  owner  of  houses  for  workingmen,  which  seems 
to  be  between  4£  and  5  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  borrowed  capital 
is  1,500,000  francs  ($289,500),  in  the  form  of  a  municipal  loan  from  the 
city  of  Antwerp.  On  this  sum  5  j>er  cent  for  sixty-six  years  is  paid. 
This  includes  both  interest  and  the  repayment  of  the  capital  sum. 
About  15  per  cent  of  the  lodgings  were  unoccupied  during  the  fiscal 
year.  Rents  are  paid  weekly  or  monthly.  A  dej)osit  of  100  francs 
($19.30)  is  made  by  a  tenant  on  taking  possession.  Rentals  are  usually 
paid  at  the  office  to  the  agent.  Arrearages  are  allowed  only  in  case  of 
sickness.  Nothing  was  lost  from  this  source  during  the  fiscal  year. 
Fifteen  to  thirty  days’  notice  is  required  of  intention  to  leave.  If  a 
tenant  does  not  vacate,  when  notified,  within  the  prescribed  period, 
that  is,  fifteen  to  thirty  days,  according  as  he  pays  weekly  or  monthly 
rental,  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  law  to  evict  him,  he  forfeits  his 
deposit  of  100  francs  ($19.30).  It  is  believed  that  20  per  cent  of  the 
earnings  of  heads  of  tenant  families  goes  for  rent.  Tenants  rarely 
move  except  when  forced  by  circumstances.  Some  have  lived  twenty- 


364  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR 


five  years  in  tlieir  houses.  On  very  rare  occasions  the  privilege  of 
snblettin  g  or  receiving  boarders  is  permitted.  The  occupations  of  heads 
of  tenant  families  appear  in  the  following  table: 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  TENANT  FAMILIES  IN  HOUSES  OF  BUEEAU  OF  PUBLIC 

BELIEF,  ANT  WEEP. 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Occupation. 


Num¬ 

ber. 


Bakers . 

Barber . 

Block  maker . 

Boatmen . 

Bookbinder . 

Box  maker . 

Brass  founders . 

Brewer . 

Bricklayers . 

Butchers . 

Cabinetmakers . 

Calkers . 

Carpenters . 

Carriage  smith . 

Chair  maker . 

Chandelier  maker . 

Cigar  makers . 

Clerks . 

Coal  carriers . 

Compositors  . 

Confectioners . 

Cook  . . 

Coopers . 

Coppersmiths . 

Custom-house  employ  ecs. . 

Dealer  in  sand . 

Diamond  cutters . 

Distiller . 

Dock  hand . 

Dressmaker . . . 

Firemen . 

Fitters . 

Foremen . 

Gardeners . 


4 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

4 

1 

15 
2 
6 
2 

28 

1 

1 

1 

16 
3 
2 

3 

4 
1 
6 
4 

36 

1 

7 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

16 

3 


Gas-office  servants . 

Gas-works  employees .... 

Gilders . 

Glassworkers . 

Goldsmiths . 

Government  employees  .. 

Grocers . 

Inspector . 

Iron  carriers . 

Iron  founder . 

Ironers  in  laundry . 

Jailers . 

Joiners . 

Laborers,  agricultural - 

Laborers,  railroad  station. 

Laundresses . 

Lawyers . 

Letter  carriers . 

Machinists . 

Magazine  keepers . 

Mail  carrier . 

Marble-cutters . 

Mechanic . 

Messengers . 

Musicians . 

Night  watchmen . 

Organ  maker . 

Ornament  maker . 

Painters . 

Paper  hangers . 

Parcel  messenger . 

Pensioner . 

Plasterers . 

Plumbers . 


2 

14 
3 
2 
2 

15 
2 
1 
3 
1 
2 
2 

18 

9 

2 

3 
2 

5 

14 

11 

1 

7 

1 

4 
2 
2 
1 
1 

21 

3 

1 

1 

6 
2 


Policemen . 

Porters . 

Kailroad  depot  laborers . . . 

Bailroad  porters . 

Boofers . 

Bope  maker . 

Sailors . 

Sculptors  . 

Servants  . 

Ship  carpenters . 

Ship  stowers . 

Shoemakers . 

Shop  clerk . 

Shopkeepers . 

Silk  worker . . . 

Smiths . 

Stonecutters . 

Stone  mason . . 

Street laborer . 

Surveyor . 

Street  railway  employee.. 

Tailors . 

Telephone  company  em¬ 
ployees . 

Turner . 

Umbrella  maker . 

Viticulturists . 

Waiter . 

Watchman . 

Wheelwright . 

Workingmen . 

W  orkingwomen . 

No  occupation . . . 


11 

2 

3 

9 

8 

1 

3 

2 

30 

5 

3 

20 

1 

69 

1 

15 

7 
1 
1 
1 

1. 

8 

2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

204 

26 

1 


BUREAU  OF  PUBLIC  RELIEF,  WAVRE. 

The  board  of  management  of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Relief  of  Wavre 
[Bureau  de  Bienfaisance  de  la  Ville  de  Wavre)  commenced  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  workingmen’s  houses  in  1869.  It  has  built  in  all  50  houses,  30 
situated  in  the  town  on  rue  de  la  Loriette  and  20  in  the  hamlet  of 
Lower  Wavre,  ten  minutes’  walk  from  the  first  group.  The  houses  are 
built  alike. 

The  houses  are  contiguously  located.  The  frontage  of  the  lot  upon 
which  each  house  is  built  is  14  feet  1  inch  and  the  depth  53  feet  6  inches. 
The  depth  of  a  dwelling  runs  to  about  26  feet  3  inches,-  Approximately, 
37  per  cent  of  the  lot  is  not  built  upon.  The  open  space  is  mainly  in 
the  form  of  a  court.  Each  house  has  two  stories  and  is  constructed  of 
brick.  There  is  a  cellar  paved  with  bricks.  In  every  room  there  is  a 
zinc  pipe,  with  an  opening  in  it  near  the  ceiling,  which  carries  off  the 
bad  air  through  the  roof.  This  pipe  is  surmounted  on  the  outside  by 
a  cap. 

Each  dwelling  has  a  privy,  which  is  situated  outside,  at  the  farther 
end  of  the  court.  The  night  soil  is  used  for  fertilizing  the  garden. 
Heating  is  usually  done  by  oil  stoves  and  lighting  by  kerosene  lamps. 


CHAPTER  X. — MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


365 


Each  house  is  occupied  by  a  single  family,  averaging  about  six  per¬ 
sons.  Separation  of  the  households  is  as  complete  as  can  be  desired. 
Each  of  the  two  bedrooms  is  used  solely  as  a  sleeping  room.  The  size 
of  the  kitchen  is  13  feet  6  inches  by  14  feet  1  inch;  the  living  room,  12 
feet  10  inches  by  14  feet  1  inch.  The  two  bedrooms  are  similar  in  size 
to  the  kitchen  and  living  room.  The  height  of  the  ceiling  on  the  ground 
floor  is  7  feet  6  inches  and  on  the  second  floor  8  feet  10  inches. 

Tenants  belong  to  various  occupations.  The  daily  earnings  of  the 
heads  of  families  occupying  these  dwellings  are  1.50  francs  to  2  francs 
(29  cents  to  39  cents).  The  rent  varies  from  120  francs  to  144  francs 
($23.16  to  $27.79)  per  year,  which  is  about  the  same  as  that  paid  for 
fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood.  The  administra¬ 
tion  seeks  to  make  the  tenant  the  owner  of  the  house.  The  rent  is 
figured  at  the  ordinary  rate — from  10  francs  to  12  francs  ($1.93  to 
$2.32)  per  month  as  a  maximum.  From  this  rental  a  sum  is  reserved 
to  pay  4  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  the  house.  The  remainder  is  capital¬ 
ized  at  5  per  cent  and  divided  into  annual  installments,  which  go  for 
the  payment  of  the  house.  After  ten  years  a  tenant  can,  if  he  desires, 
buy  the  house  by  paying  4  per  cent  on  the  remainder  of  the  annual 
installments  until  such  are  fully  paid.  Up  to  1889  eleven  houses  had  been 
bought.  Allowance  is  made  if  tenants  fall  behind  in  their  payments 
as  a  result  of  sickness  or  inability  to  obtain  work;  only,  if  the  tenant 
takes  two  or  three  years  more  to  pay  his  annuities,  he  must  pay  on  the 
amounts  overdue  from  3  to  3£  per  cent  interest. 

The  original  cost  of  the  land  upon  which  the  dwellings  are  situated 
was  7,250  francs  ($1,399.25),  of  the  houses,  83,888  francs  ($16,190.38). 
Four  per  cent  upon  the  capital  invested  is  the  value  of  the  annual  net 
return.  Tenants  are  exempt  from  the  tax  on  personal  property,  and 
they  only  pay  a  land  tax  of  5.35  francs  ($1.03)  per  annum. 

There  is  no  loss  from  unoccupied  dwellings,  as  all  the  houses  are 
greatly  sought  after.  Rents  are  paid  monthly,  in  advance,  at  the 
banking  institution  managed  by  the  bureau.  Tenants  may  be  six 
months  in  arrears  before  ejectment  takes  place. 

Of  the  male  tenants  there  were  2  clerks,  35  laborers,  9  factory 
operatives,  and  34  in  miscellaneous  occupations ;  of  the  women  there 
were  2  storekeepers,  55  laborers,  and  6  in  miscellaneous  occupations. 

Tenants  are  not  allowed  to  sublet  or  to  receive  boarders. 

In  1892,  out  of  a  total  population  of  257  in  the  group  of  model  dwell¬ 
ings,  there  were  3  deaths — 2  children  and  1  man.  There  were  8  births 
in  the  group,  all  of  which  were  legitimate.  During  the  same  year  there 
were  206  births  in  the  town,  17  of  which  were  illegitimate. 

The  town  being  small  (7,300  population),  the  occupants  of  the  model 
dwellings  are  favorably  situated  with  reference  to  their  work. 


366  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


VIEILLE-MONTAGNE  COMPANY,  CHENEE. 

This  company  (La  Soci^te  de  la  Vieille-Montagne)  has  always  given 
much  attention  to  housing  its  working  people.  Its  operations  vary 
according  to  local  conditions.  When  the  works  are  near  large  centers 
of  population,  steps  are  taken  to  see  that  working  people  do  not  pay 
too  high  a  rent,  and  building  societies  are  encouraged.  Whenever 
necessary  on  account  of  the  remoteness  of  the  works  or  mines  (the 
company  is  among  the  most  extensive  mining  and  zinc  manufacturing 
enterprises  in  the  world),  houses  are  constructed  from  its  own  funds. 
These  buildings  are  placed  in  groups  of  two  or  four  houses,  and  are 
generally  built  for  single  families,  two  being  rarely  sheltered  under  the 
same  roof.  A  small  garden  is  usually  attached  to  each  dwelling.  Expe¬ 
rience  has  shown  that  isolation  and  independence  for  each  household 
produce  the  best  effects. 

A  dwelling  composed  of  four  rooms,  with  stable  and  garden,  and  a 
small  piece  of  land  for  cultivation  near  at  hand,  rents  for  from  80  to  100 
francs  ($15.44  to  $19.30)  per  year,  or  considerably  less  than  one-tenth  of 
the  wages  earned  by  the  head  of  the  family.  Rents  are  paid  monthly 
or  fortnightly,  and  are  retained  from  wages.  Boarders  may  be  taken  if 
they  are  employees  of  the  company. 

The  sale  of  liquor  is  uniformly  prohibited  in  these  settlements.  The 
company  exercises  supervision  over  its  tenants  in  relation  to  hygiene. 
If  a  house  is  not  well  kept,  according  to  the  agreement  entered  into,  it 
may  be  cleaned  and  whitewashed  at  the  expense  of  the  tenant. 

The  company  seeks  to  aid  and  encourage  its  employees  to  become 
owners  of  the  houses  in  which  they  live.  Various  systems  are  employed 
for  carrying  out  this  benevolent  purpose — (1)  land  is  allotted  and  sold 
at  a  reduced  price,  while  money  is  advanced  for  building,  repayable 
during  long  periods;  (2)  land  may  be  selected  and  bought  by  working 
people,  and  the  company  will  then  furnish  building  material  at  actual 
cost;  (3)  houses  are  built  by  the  compauy  and  sold  at  cost,  payable 
partly  in  cash  and  partly  in  easy  installments ;  (4)  local  building  socie¬ 
ties  are  aided  and  encouraged  by  the  company.  In  1889  1,180  laborers 
and  foremen,  being  a  proportion  of  1  in  every  6  of  the  total  number 
of  employees,  had  become  proprietors  of  their  homes.  The  principal 
works  of  the  company  are  situated  in  Belgium,  but  its  housing  opera¬ 
tions  have  not  been  confined  to  that  region.  In  every  place  where  it 
has  built  establishments — in  France,  in  Germany,  in  Sweden,  and  in 
Algeria — it  has  included  housing  with  its  other  operations. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  MARCINELLE 

AND  COUILLET. 

A  typical  dwelling  of  this  company  occupies  about  496  square  feet 
upon  a  lot  of  3,229  feet  area.  It  is  built  of  brick,  two  stories  high,  and 
surrounded  with  open  space,  which  is  chiefly  utilized  as  a  garden. 
There  have  been  no  special  attempts  to  render  the  building  fireproof, 
except  to  use  incombustible  materials  in  the  construction. 


CHAPTER  X - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


367 


The  house  has  a  cellar,  which  is  paved  with  stones  and  bricks.  The 
privy  is  situated  outside.  The  system  is  quite  primitive,  and  fixtures  of 
the  simplest  kind  are  used.  There  is  one  provided  for  the  use  of  each 
family.  A  stove  has  been  placed  in  the  kitchen,  and  storage  for  fuel 
is  provided  in  the  cellar.  Garbage  is  deposited  in  boxes  or  piled 
in  a  heap,  and  carried  away  once  a  week  by  the  civil  authorities.  There 
is  no  pantry,  but  a  dresser  has  been  fitted  up.  There  are  no  clothes- 
presses,  but  hooks  have  been  fixed  in  the  walls.  Lighting  is  done  with 
oil  lamps  and  heating  with  coal  stoves.  The  house  is  provided  with 
plain  window  shutters.  The  exterior  walls  are  whitewashed,  and  the 
interior  covered  with  cheap  wall  paper. 

The  total  cubic  contents  of  the  house,  which  is  the  residence  of  a 
single  family,  is  about  9,182  feet.  The  annual  rental  paid  is  200  francs 
($38.60).  The  rental  of  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity  would 
be  300  francs  ($57.90)  per  annum.  The  cost  of  the  lot  is  reckoned  at 
390  francs  ($75.27),  and  the  building  at  2,608.80  francs  ($503.50). 

Tenants  may  become  proprietors  of  the  houses  they  occupy.  The 
sum  of  600  francs  ($115.80)  is  paid  at  the  time  of  assuming  occupancy, 
and  30  francs  ($5.79)  per  month  during  the  following  eight  years.  Four 
per  cent  net  has  been  provided  for  in  these  operations.  No  special  res¬ 
ervation  is  made  in  the  deed  to  the  purchaser.  The  first  of  the  houses 
in  the  group  was  built  in  1866.  The  group  now  includes  fourteen,  con¬ 
structed  at  a  total  cost  of  36,500  francs  ($7,044.50)  for  buildings,  and 
5,500  francs  ($1,061.50)  for  land. 

The  company  has  control  of  the  houses,  and  has  charge  of  their  repair 
until  the  time  when  all  installments  have  been  paid  off.  If  in  the 
meantime  the  workingman  leaves  its  employment  he  continues  to  pay 
the  same  as  before,  except  that  interest  on  the  remaining  payments 
is  calculated  at  6  per  cent  instead  of  4  per  cent  per  annum.  In  case  of 
his  death  whatever  has  been  paid  up  is  returned  to  the  widow  and  the 
house  becomes  the  property  of  the  company. 

Taxes  amount  to  12  francs  ($2.32)  per  house.  The  taxes  on  houses 
rented  at  a  low  price  are  very  small  in  Belgium.  By  virtue  of  a  recent 
law  the  occupants  are  exempt  from  the  personal  tax.  In  France  the 
system  of  taxation  seems  to  bear  with  special  weight  on  small  houses, 
and  rather  to  discriminate  against  them  as  compared  with  larger 
buildings. 

The  houses  owned  by  this  company  are  always  occupied.  Bents  are 
paid  monthly  at  the  company’s  office,  when  wages  are  received.  Pay¬ 
ments  are  always  regular.  But  one  month’s  notice  is  required  on  either 
side  for  the  severance  of  relations  as  landlord  and  tenant.  Where 
houses  are  rented,  if  the  tenant  leaves  the  employ  of  the  company  he 
must  move  out  of  the  house  within  a  fortnight. 

The  company  commenced  its  housing  operations  as  far  back  as  1833. 
It  has  built  in  all  156  dwellings,  24  of  which  had  been  sold  up  to  1890. 
Bents  have  not  been  changed  in  the  last  ten  years. 


3G8  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

The  average  wages  per  year  of  the  heads  of  families  in  the  employ 
of  the  company  are  from  1,000  francs  to  1,200  francs  ($193  to  $231.60) 
in  the  different  departments.  From  10  to  14  per  cent  of  the  earnings 
of  the  heads  of  families  is  absorbed  in  rent.  The  duration  of  tenancy 
is  stable,  workmen  rarely  quitting  after  once  becoming  installed.  Sub¬ 
letting  or  receiving  boarders  is  not  permitted. 

The  houses  are  situated  conveniently  to  the  working  locality  of  the 
tenants.  A  bread  oven  has  been  built  for  every  fifteen  houses.  There 
is  a  free  municipal  library  in  the  vicinity.  The  company  has  estab¬ 
lished  infant  and  primary  schools,  as  well  as  schools  for  adults.  Schools 
for  music,  drawing,  apprenticeship,  and  housekeeping  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  also.  There  is  an  old  age  and  accident  fund,  a  savings  bank, 
free  medical  service,  a  hospital,  and,  besides,  a  few  less  important  acces¬ 
sories  which  have  been  originated  by  the  company  for  the  benefit  of  its 
working  people. 

MARIEMONT  MINING  COMPANY,  MARIEMONT  AND  BASCOUP. 

At  Mariemont  1,776,049  square  feet  are  given  up  to  267  houses,  and 
at  Bascoup  this  same  company  has  built  247  houses  on  plots  of  ground 
aggregating  1,184,040  square  feet.  The  houses  are  generally  built  in, 
groups  of  four.  The  total  frontage  of  each  group  varies  from  78  feet 
6  inches  to  79  feet  8  inches,  or  19  feet  7£  inches  to  19  feet  11  inches  per 
house.  The  depth  is  usually  24  feet  10£  inches.  But  a  small  portion 
of  the  ground  is  covered.  The  open  space  is  generally  at  the  rear; 
the  most  of  it  is  divided  among  the  tenants  for  garden  purposes. 
Houses  have  two  stories  with  attic.  They  are  built  of  brick  with  cut 
stone  for  sill  facings  of  doors  and  windows.  There  is  a  cellar  paved 
with  bricks.  Houses  are  built  for  one  family  each  and  contain  five 
rooms.  Privies  are  situated  outside  and  are  of  primitive  j)attern. 
Sewage  is  carried  away  by  pipes  into  aqueducts,  which  are  protected 
by  gratings  placed  at  several  points.  Garbage  and  ashes  are  removed 
by  the  company. 

The  prevailing  rental  for  the  houses  is  7.50  francs  ($1.45)  each  per 
month.  Houses  with  mansards  rent  for  8.25  francs  ($1.59)  per  month. 
Some  of  the  older  houses,  which  are  occupied  by  widows  or  persons 
without  children,  bring  from  6  to  7  francs  ($1.16  to  $1.35).  The  aver¬ 
age  rent  for  like  lodging  in  the  vicinity  is  15  francs  ($2.90)  per  month. 

The  first  house  of  the  Mariemont  Mining  Company  was  opened  for 
habitation  in  1840;  since  then  new  ones  have  been  constructed  at 
intervals.  The  last  oue  built  at  Mariemont  was  in  1882,  and  at  Bas¬ 
coup  in  1889.  They  are  situated,  as  a  rule,  near  the  mines. 

The  original  cost  of  the  514  houses,  including  land,  aggregated  1,850,- 
000  francs  ($357,050).  The  annual  rent  roll  amounts  to  46,000  francs 
($8,878).  The  company  does  not  sell  houses.  It  prefers  to  retain  them, 
as  it  is  thereby  enabled  to  reward  its  faithful  employees  by  furnishing 


HO'JSES  OF  THE  MARIEMONT  MINING  COMPANY,  MARIEMONT,  BELGIUM. 

Plan  No.  68  a. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  MARIEMONT  MINING  COMPANY.  MARIEMONT,  BELGIUM. 


CHAPTER  X. — MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


369 


them  with  good  houses  at  low  rent.  When  any  workingman  wants  to 
build  a  house  the  company  advances  the  money  without  interest,  and 
deducts  the  amount  from  his  wages.  Twenty  per  cent  of  adult  work¬ 
men  employed  by  the  company  have  become  owners  of  their  homes. 

Taxes  vary  from  5  to  6  francs  (97  cents  to  $1.16),  according  to  the 
style  of  house,  and  are  paid  by  the  company.  Kents  are  payable 
monthly,  and  are  deducted  from  wages.  There  are  consequently  no 
arrears.  No  provision  is  made  for  evicting  tenants  going  on  strike,  but 
when  they  leave  the  employment  of  the  company  they  must  surrender 
the  houses.  Kents  have  not  been  raised  during  the  last  ten  years. 
Worthy  employees  only  are  given  the  privilege  of  becoming  tenants. 
They  are  in  the  main  miners,  although  some  are  machinists  and  other 
mechanics.  Subletting  is  not  allowed,  but  boarders  may  be  received 
by  permission  of  the  company.  Houses  are  rented  upon  recommenda¬ 
tion  of  the  chief  of  the  division  in  which  the  applicant  works.  They 
are  much  sought  after  because,  on  account  of  the  low  rents,  tenants  can 
increase  their  savings  and  thus  the  sooner  become  owners  of  homes. 

Bread  ovens  have  been  erected  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  eight  house¬ 
holds.  Bathrooms  have  been  fitted  up  at  the  workshops,  with  hot  and 
cold  water. 

Houses  are  all  constructed  according  to  the  type  shown  in  the  accom¬ 
panying  plans  (plans  Nos.  68  A  and  68  B). 

BRUSSELS  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  ERUSSELS. 

The  object  of  this  company  (Soci6t6  Anonyme  des  Habitations  Ouv- 
rieres  dans  1’ Agglomeration  Bruxelloise),  which  was  organized  in  1868, 
is  the  construction,  rental,  and  sale  to  workingmen  of  cheap  houses. 
The  present  King  of  the  Belgians  and  his  brother  are  shareholders,  and 
the  organization  received  support  from  some  of  the  leading  financial 
institutions  of  the  city.  Two  types  of  houses  have  been  erected — those 
in  groups  of  four,  surrounded  by  gardens  and  each  intended  for  a 
single  household,  and  those  having  a  number  of  tenements  under  the 
same  roof.  In  the  first  type  each  house  contains,  as  a  rule,  a  small  cel¬ 
lar,  a  kitchen,  two  sleeping  rooms,  and  a  garret.  In  houses  of  a  slightly 
modified  type  an  additional  room  is  found  on  the  ground  floor.  In  the 
second  type  each  tenement  consists  of  a  kitchen  and  one  or  two  sleeping 
rooms.  The  company  has  constructed  six  groups  of  houses,  shelter¬ 
ing  526  families.  There  are  246  small  houses  and  24  tenement  build¬ 
ings,  and  also  a  row  which  was  purchased  already  constructed.  The 
rents  of  the  first  type  of  house  vary  from  3.85  to  5.11  francs  (74  to  99 
cents)  per  week;  rents  in  the  tenement  buildings  are  from  3.92  to  6.02 
francs  (76  cents  to  $1.16)  per  week.  The  taxes  are  very  heavy,  amount¬ 
ing  to  11.56  per  cent  of  the  gross  rental,  supposing  all  tenements  to  be 
occupied.  It  has  been  due  largely  to  this  fact  that  the  company  has 
not  been  a  success  commercially,  a  small  dividend,  amounting  to  about 
2  per  cent,  being  the  average  annual  amount  paid. 

H.  Ex.  354 - 24 


370  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 
VERVIERS  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  VERVIERS. 

This  organization  (Society  Vervi6toise  pour  la  Construction  de  Mai- 
sons  Ouvrieres)  was  authorized  in  1861.  Its  capital  stock  is  1,000,000 
francs  ($193,000).  Its  object  is  the  construction  of  houses  to  serve  as 
homes  for  workingmen  and  the  acquisition  of  existing  buildings,  their 
repair  and  sanitary  amelioration.  It  sells  its  property  on  annual  pay¬ 
ments,  or  rents  the  houses.  It  commenced  operations  by  erecting 
two  distinct  groups  of  houses.  The  first  was  situated  in  the  com¬ 
mune  of  Ensival,  near  Yerviers,  and  was  composed  of  16  houses,  all 
of  which  have  been  sold.  The  second  group  includes  12  one-story 
houses  and  a  large  tenement  building.  A  third  group  of  buildings, 
comprising  11  houses,  was  constructed  in  1888.  With  the  exception  of 
two  years,  the  association  has  paid  a  dividend  of  4  per  cent  annually. 
The  rent  of  its  small  houses  has  been  240  francs  ($46.32)  per  annum. 

CITE  HOYAUX,  MONS. 

This  enterprise,  which  is  entirely  a  private  affair  and  the  work  of 
M.  Emile  Hoyaux,  was  commenced  in  1881.  In  all  86  houses,  74  of  four 
rooms  and  12  houses  with  stores  attached,  have  been  constructed  at  a 
total  cost,  including  value  of  land,  etc.,  of  514,343  francs  ($99,268.20) 
A  fair  return  is  received  on  the  capital.  The  buildings  are  of  brick, 
with  white  stone  trimmings,  and  are  built  in  continuous  blocks.  All 
the  74  four-room  dwellings  are  alike.  The  12  larger  houses  with  stores 
are  finer  and  better  buildings.  They  are  situated  at  the  corners  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  blocks,  and  serve  to  break  the  uniformity  of  archi¬ 
tectural  outline.  Privies  have  been  placed  outside  the  houses.  Arte¬ 
sian  wells  have  been  sunk,  and  a  laundry,  conveniently  located,  is 
provided  for  the  free  use  of  occupants.  Rents  vary  from  15  to  18  francs 
($2.90  to  $3.47)  per  month.  Most  of  the  tenants  are  employees  of  the 
Belgian  state  railway,  at  the  arsenal  of  Mons,  or  machinists  and  other 
artisans.  Dwellings  are  not  sold  to  individual  occupants.  Plans  are 
given  herewith  (plan  No.  69). 

GRAND-HORNU  MINING  AND  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY,  MONS. 

The  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company  of  Grand-Hornu  ( TJsines  et 
Mines  de  Houille  du  Grand-Hornu ),  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mons,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  remarkable  of  the  establishments  of  its  kind 
in  Belgium.  It  was  founded  in  1810,  originally  for  the  purpose  of  coal 
mining,  but  in  later  years  shops  for  the  construction  of  machinery  have 
been  added.  Five  hundred  and  fifty  workingmen’s  homes  have  been 
built  by  the  company  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  shops.  The  houses 
are  placed  side  by  side  and  form  a  street.  All  of  them  have  a  ground 
floor  and  upper  story.  Gardens  are  attached  to  the  houses.  One 
family  inhabits  a  single  house.  The  average  rent  is  2.40  francs  (46 
cents)  per  week,  and  is  deducted  from  wages. 


CITE  HOYAUX,  MONS,  BELGIUM. 

Plan  No.  69 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


371 


BOIS-DU-LUC  MINING  COMPANY,  BOIS-DU-LUC. 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  commercial  companies  (Soci6t6  des  Charbon- 
nages  du  Bois-du-Luc)  in  Belgium,  its  original  articles  of  association 
bearing  date  February  14, 1685.  In  1838  the  company  commenced  its 
housing  activities,  and  since  that  time  it  has  constructed  three  principal 
groups  of  dwellings — one  of  166  houses,  a  second  of  85  houses,  and  a 
third  of  84  houses  near  the  original  group.  The  original  group  is  dis¬ 
posed  in  four  squares — two  having  an  area  of  59,094  square  feet  in  the 
interior  courts  and  the  other  two  haviug  an  area  of  71,042  square  feet 
in  the  interior  courts.  Each  house  contains  four  rooms  and  cellar,  and 
is  occupied  by  one  family.  A  garden,  containing  2,691  square  feet,  is 
set  aside  for  cultivation  by  each  family,  and  additional  ground  may  be 
rented  in  the  neighborhood  for  raising  vegetables  and  fruit.  Good 
sewerage  and  water  supply  systems  have  been  provided.  Hot  water, 
which  is  provided  by  a  condensing  engine,  may  also  be  had.  A  house 
rents  for  8.50  francs  ($1.64)  per  month,  including  supply  of  gas.  The 
original  cost  of  each  house  was  1,700  francs  ($328.10).  The  second  group 
of  houses  is  somewhat  more  expensive,  the  original  cost  of  each  house  be¬ 
ing  2,200  francs  ($424.60).  The  rent,  including  gas,  is  9.50  francs  ($1.83) 
each  per  month.  In  the  third  group  rents  vary  from  5  francs  to  8  francs 
(97  cents  to  $1.54)  per  month,  gas  not  included.  A  bake  oven  is  sup¬ 
plied  for  each  seven  houses  in  the  last  two  groups.  Tenants  who  leave 
the  employment  of  the  company  are  not  ejected,  but  their  rents  are 
raised  3  francs  (58  cents)  per  month.  In  all  335  families,  comprising 
nearly  1,800  people,  find  shelter  in  the  houses  of  the  company.  Sub¬ 
letting  is  permitted  where  the  lodger  is  in  the  employ  of  the  company. 
If  he  be  an  outsider  the  rent  is  raised  3  francs  (58  cents)  per  month  per 
person  lodged.  A  moderate  return  upon  the  capital  is  received. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  are  numerous  model  enterprises 
in  Belgium  which  have  not  been  mentioned  for  lack  of  space.  The 
principal  of  these  are  situated  at  Alost,  Antwerp,  Fl^malle,  F16nu, 
Ghent,  Huy,  Isle-le-Pr6,  Jodoigne,  Liege,  Marchiennes  au  Pont,  Mons, 
Morlanwelz,  Namur,  Nivelles,  Ougr6e,  Quenast,  Ruysbroeck,  Seraing, 
Soumagne,  Stavelot,  Str<§py-Bracquegnies,  Thy-le-Ohateau,  Trooz, 
Turnhout,  Yal  Saint-Lambert,  Verviers,  Wetteren,  Willebroek,  and 
Wygmael-lez-Louvain. 

A  statement  of  the  activities  of  these  additional  enterprises  appears 
in  the  interesting  work  of  Baron  de  Royer  de  Dour. 

GERMANY. 

BERLIN  BUILDING  ASSOCIATION,  BERLIN. 

The  property  of  the  Berlin  Building  Association  ( Baugenossenschaft ), 
over  which  Herr  K.  Schrader,  member  of  the  imperial  parliament,  pre¬ 
sides,  is  situated  in  the  suburbs  of  Berlin.  The  company  has  devoted 
its  efforts  to  building  small  dwellings,  which  it  sells  to  occupants.  A 
double  dwelling  house,  for  two  families,  is  selected  for  description. 


372  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

It  is  situated  on  a  lot  containing  5,328  square  feet.  Only  a  very  small 
portion  of  this  (about  one-seventh)  is  built  upon.  The  remainder  is 
open  space  in  the  front  and  side  and  a  large  garden  in  the  rear. 

In  the  construction,  which  is  two  stories  in  height,  brick  is  the  mate¬ 
rial  used.  There  is  a  cellar  with  cemented  floor.  Each  family  has  its 
own  privy,  which  is  situated  in  an  extension  at  the  back.  The  tub  sys¬ 
tem  is  employed.  Water  is  supplied  by  each  house  having  a  well. 
Heating  is  done  with  porcelain  stoves,  and  lamps  supply  lighting.  A 
wash  kitchen  or  laundry  and  a  stable  with  two  stalls  are  located  in  an 
outhouse  at  the  back  of  the  court.  An  ordinary  range  has  been  fitted 
in  each  kitchen.  Coal  is  kept  in  the  outhouse. 

The  houses  are  plainly  built,  with  no  exterior  or  interior  decorations. 
Only  the  ordinary  conveniences  as  regards  clothespresses,  pantries, 
etc.,  have  been  placed  in  the  dwellings.  The  kitchens  are  10  feet  8 
inches  by  9  feet  1  inch,  and  two  additional  rooms  on  the  same  floor  15 
feet  5  inches  by  9  feet  1  inch  and  15  feet  11  inches  by  13  feet  10  inches, 
respectively.  The  ceilings  of  these  rooms  are  10  feet  6  inches  in  height. 
The  total  cost  of  each  double  house  was  8,000  marks  ($1,904). 

The  first  house  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1886.  IJp  to  the  fall  of 
1892,  66  houses  had  been  built — 26  of  which  were  situated  at  Adlershof, 
24  at  Lichterfelde,  and  16  at  Hermsdorf.  All  these  places  are  suburbs 
of  Berlin,  the  first  named  being  about  7  miles  from  the  city.  The  cost 
for  daily  transportation  to  and  from  the  city  is  about  50  marks  ($11.90) 
annually  for  workmen  living  in  Adlershof  and  Lichterfelde.  The  jour¬ 
ney  between  Hermsdorf  and  the  city  costs  1.50  marks  (36  cents)  per  week 
for  the  round  trip.  There  are  no  workingmen’s  trains  in  Berlin  of  the 
same  kind  as  in  London. 

Up  to  1892,  750,000  marks  ($178,500)  had  been  spent  by  this  corpora¬ 
tion  for  furthering  its  work.  Houses  are  built  for  the  purpose  of  sale 
only.  When  completed  members  draw  lots  for  them.  Only  those  mem¬ 
bers  are  eligible  who  have  paid  at  least  50  marks  ($11.90)  on  their  j 
shares,  who  have  been  members  at  least  one  year,  and  who  agree  to  the 
terms  of  the  contract.  A  conveyance  is  not  given  unless  a  cash  pay¬ 
ment  of  one- third  of  the  cost  price  is  made.  In  that  case  a  mortgage 
will  be  taken  by  the  association  for  the  remainder.  In  all  other  cases 
the  house  remains  the  property  of  the  association  until  the  necessary 
one-third  is  covered  by  installment  payments.  Until  possession  of  the 
house  is  actually  obtained  a  rental,  based  on  the  cost  price,  is  paid  in 
addition  to  the  installment  payment.  Members  must  themselves  dwell 
in  the  houses  they  purchase,  and  each  member  may  secure  but  one 
house.  Payments  are  made  quarterly.  The  annual  amount  to  be  paid 
is  6  per  cent  on  the  capital,  of  which  2  per  cent  is  accounted  as  a  pay-  \ 
ment  on  the  house.  As  soon  as  one-third  of  the  cost  price  is  paid,  only 
4  per  cent  is  paid  annually.  Members  may  pay  more  than  2  per  cent  a 
year  if  they  desire,  or  they  may  at  other  times  pay  amounts  from  10 
marks  ($2.38)  upward  on  the  house,  which  amounts  and  payments  will  be 
credited  to  their  account.  Interest  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent  on  the  pay- 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


373 


mtmts  is  credited  to  the  members.  The  only  other  method  is  for  the 
intending  proprietor  to  advance  one-third  of  the  purchase  money,  and 
then  the  association  builds  the  house  he  wants  and  indorses  his  paper 
for  a  loan  from  the  government  insurance  fund  ( invaliditdtsversicJierung ), 
or  from  two  private  companies,  one  of  them  a  life  insurance  and  the 
other  a  fire  insurance  company,  who  lend  money  thus.  The  houses  are 
sold  for  a  trifle  more  than  cost  price;  that  is,  about  7^  per  cent.  Thus, 
houses  costing  8,000  marks  ($1,904)  sell  for  8,600  marks  ($2,046.80). 
The  4  per  cent  rent  is  based  on  this  selling  price. 

Additions  or  new  buildings  can  not  be  constructed  in  front  of  the 
building  line.  The  space  in  front  of  a  house  can  be  used  only  as  a 
garden.  The  front  fence  must  be  either  a  hedge  or  an  iron  grating,  or 
it  may  be  a  wall  not  over  39  inches  high.  The  land  set  aside  as  a  pri¬ 
vate  street  must  always  be  used  as  such.  Not  more  than  one-third  of 
the  ground  can  ever  be  built  upon.  Houses  may  never  have  more  than 
three  stories,  and  must  be  at  least  9  feet  10  inches  from  the  boundary 
line  of  the  neighboring  property.  All  occupations  necessitating  noise, 
smoke,  unpleasant  odors,  or  things  that  might  be  offensive  in  any  way 
to  the  neighborhood,  may  not  be  carried  on  in  the  houses.  Drinking 
places  can  not  be  opened  except  when  particularly  specified  in  the  con¬ 
tract.  The  association  may  require  the  owner  of  property  to  remove 
any  person  guilty  of  a  crime  or  misdemeanor,  or  whose  presence  might 
endanger  the  reputatiou  of  the  neighborhood,  if  such  persons  are  living 
as  lessees  in  any  of  the  houses.  The  terms  of  the  contract  of  sale  hold 
good  even  after  the  house  is  fully  paid  for. 

The  assets  of  the  building  association  January  1,  1892,  amounted  to 
109,603.05  marks  ($26,085.53),  which  consisted  of  a  paid-up  capital  of 
94,956.25  marks  ($22,599.59)  and  a  reserve  fund  of  14,646.80  marks 
($3,485.94).  Five  per  cent  has  been  distributed  annually  as  dividends 
since  the  association  was  first  organized.  Borrowed  capital  amounts  to 
30,092.15  marks  ($7,161.93),  upon  which  3£  and  4  per  cent  interest  is  paid. 

The  occupations  of  heads  of  families  who  have  acquired  property 
through  the  association  up  to  1892  are  as  follows: 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  HEADS  OF  FAMILIES  WHO  HAVE  ACQUIRED  PROPERTY 
THROUGH  THE  BERLIN  BUILDING  ASSOCIATION. 


Occupation. 

Num- 
b  er. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

JS  um¬ 
ber. 

Agents . . . 

3 

1 

Restaurant  keeper . 

1 

Architect . . . 

1 

1 

|  Railway  clerks . 

2 

Bank  clerk . _  _ 

1 

5 

Salesman.... . . 

1 

Blacksmith . 

1 

1 

Sculptor  . . . . 

1 

Bookbinders . 

3 

1 

Secretary . . . 

1 

Bookkeepers . 

4 

1 

Shoemakers . 

3 

Butcher ' . 

1 

2 

Silk  dyer . 

1 

8 

1 

Silversmith . 

1 

Carver . 

1 

5 

j  Tailors . . . 

3 

Compositors . . 

2 

1 

I  Tanners . . . . 

2 

Disinfector . . 

1 

3 

Teachers _ _ _ 

4 

Dressmaker . 

i 

3 

Tinners  . . . 

4 

Draftsmen  . . 

2 

3 

Turner . . 

1 

Engineer . 

1 

1 

Weavers . 

2 

Foreman . 

1 

2 

Not  specified . 

2 

Foreman  dyeing  establish- 

Post-office  employees . 

4 

Not  specified  (widows)... 

2 

ment . 

1 

Printer . - . 

1 

374  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

A  list  of  the  occupations  of  shareholders  of  the  association  shows 
that  there  were  379  factory  or  industrial  workers,  20  domestic  servants, 
75  government  employees,  95  commercial  employees,  87  owners  of  work¬ 
shops,  40  merchants  and  shopkeepers,  18  teamsters  and  saloon  keepers,  j 
16  building  contractors  and  manufacturers,  50  teachers,  artists,  and 
authors,  and  23  functionaries  and  persons  living  on  their  income.  Of 
the  803  members  there  were  773  males  and  30  females. 

When  a  house  contains  more  than  one  lodging  the  owner  is  permitted 
to  sublet  the  unused  part  at  whatever  reut  he  chooses.  The  company 
limits  itself  to  prescribing  certain  general  conditions. 

*  BARMEN  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  BARMEN. 

The  houses  belonging  to  this  company  (Banner  Bau-Gesellschaft 
fiir  Arbeiter-Wohnungen)  are  situated  on  the  Wichelhausberg,  Barmen. 
The  average  frontage  of  each  lot  is  32  feet  10  inches  and  the  average 
depth  95  feet  2  inches.  Four  hundred  and  eighty-seven  square  feet  of 
superficial  area  are  occupied  by  the  building.  The  rear  space  is  used 
as  a  garden. 

The  houses  are  of  four  types.  A  double  model  dwelling  house  is 
chosen  for  description.  It  is  two  stories  in  height  and  constructed  of 
wood  and  concrete.  The  thickness  of  the  external  walls  is  5  inches. 
No  special  arrangements  have  been  made  to  secure  fireproof  quality, 
but  the  houses  are  detached.  A  cellar  paved  with  bricks  and  cement 
occupies  the  entire  under  space.  A  single  street  entrance  serves  for 
two  families.  Each  family  has  a  separate  privy,  which  is  situated 
outside.  The  pit  of  the  privy  is  cement  lined,  water  tight,  and  cov¬ 
ered  with  a  tight-fitting  lid.  City  water  is  supplied  and  the  quantity 
allowed  is  unlimited.  Iron  ranges  and  stoves  furnish  the  means  of 
heating,  and  gas  or  oil  lamps,  at  the  option  of  the  tenant,  the  lighting. 
Cooking  ranges  are  the  property  of  the  tenant.  There  are  no  inside 
decorations,  and  the  exteriors  are  plain. 

Each  single  house  contains  2  three-room  tenements.  The  kitchens 
are  13  feet  4  inches  by  7  feet  9  inches,  the  living  rooms  13  feet  4  inches 
by  8  feet  4  inches,  and  the  bedrooms  13  feet  4  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches. 
The  height  of  the  ceilings  is  from  9  feet  6  inches  to  8  feet  4  inches  on 
the  second  floor  and  10  feet  6  inches  on  the  ground  floor. 

The  annual  rental  is  115  marks  ($27.37)  per  tenement,  or  about  20 
per  cent  less  than  for  practically  similar  accommodation  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood.  The  tenants  are  for  the  most  part  factory"  operatives,  where 
the  head  of  the  family  earns  annually  from  900  marks  to  1,200  marks 
($214.20  to  $285.60). 

The  total  number  of  model  dwellings  in  this  group  belonging  to  the 
company  is  280,  and  the  first  one  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1872. 
The  original  cost  was  1,231,000  mar1' a  ($292,978).  Tenants  are  allowed 
to  become  proprietors  upon  paying  7  per  cent  of  the  purchase  money 


I 


H(jU!lS  °F  THE  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  MUNCHEN-QLADBACH,  GERMANY. 


/O'*"  Asrz'; 


fl - o - n 


7- 

— cr- 

u 

3- 

— 

— — 

u 

“fl 

b — □ — U  U 

U  c 

— p — rr~ 

r 

o  c=> 

1  C=>  C=3 

[ 

Frorrt  elevation. 


to 


/O'*." 


Ground  floor. 


Second  floor. 


HOUSE  OF  THE  COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  MUNCHEN-QLADBACH,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  70  b. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  375 


per  annum,  in  quarterly  payments.  Five  per  cent  interest  is  thus 
provided  for. 

The  total  amount  of  share  capital  is  750,000  marks  ($178,500),  all  of 
which  has  been  provided  by  the  stock  company.  The  rate  of  dividends 
i  paid  annually  has  been  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 


1872  to  1874,  inclusive 

1875  . 

1876  . 

1877  . 

1878  and  1879  . 

1880  to  1883, inclusive 

1884  . 

1885  . 

1886  to  1891,  inclusive 


3> 


4* 

3* 

31 

31 

4 

3 

21 

31 

4 


The  borrowed  capital  amounts  to  100,000  marks  ($23,800),  in  the  form 
of  a  municipal  loan  from  the  city  of  Barmen.  Three  per  cent  interest 
is  paid  on  this.  The  cost  of  repairs  and  maintenance  is  paid  by  the 
occupants.  There  is  no  particular  tax  in  Barmen  having  a  tendency 
to  favor  or  retard  the  erection  of  model  dwellings  of  this  character. 
There  was  no  loss  of  rent  from  unoccupied  lodgings  during  the  year  for 
which  returns  were  given.  Rents  are  paid  moutlily.  The  rentals  in 
the  model  dwellings  have  steadily  advanced.  The  cause  of  this  has 
been  the  enhancement  in  value  of  the  ground.  Tenants  upon  signing 
the  lease  must  make  a  deposit,  which  is  augmented  every  month,  and 
upon  the  termination  of  the  lease  this  amount  is  repaid  with  interest  at 
5  per  cent  per  annum.  The  tenant  must  give  six  mouths’  notice  of  his 
intention  to  quit  and  the  proprietor  equal  notice  before  proceeding  to 
eject.  Tenants  are  only  permitted  to  sublet  upon  special  written  per¬ 
mission,  and  then  only  when  circumstances  justify  it. 

The  majority  of  tenants  work  from  one-half  mile  to  two  miles  from 
their  dwellings.  Railway  and  street  cars  are  the  means  of  transporta¬ 
tion. 


COOPERATIVE  BUILDING  COMPANY,  MUNCHEN-GLADBACH. 

The  type  of  dwelling  house  belonging  to  this  company  (Gladbacher 
Actien-Baugesellschaft)  which  has  been  selected  for  description  has  a 
frontage  of  14  feet  9  inches  and  a  depth  of  41  feet  4  inches.  It  is  sit¬ 
uated  on  a  lot  32  feet  10  inches  front  by  76  feet  3  inches  deep.  Plans 
showing  the  disposition  of  this  and  similar  houses,  the  front  elevation, 
and  interior  arrangement  are  given  (plans  Nos.  70  A  and  70  B). 

The  unbuilt  space  is  used  as  a  court  and  garden.  It  is  situated 
in  front  and  at  the  side  and  rear.  Houses  are  built  of  brick,  the 
thickness  of  the  exterior  walls  being  10  inches.  Each  dwelling  has  a 
cellar  paved  with  bricks.  A  single  street  entrance  serves  for  more 
than  one  family.  There  are  no  means  of  ventilation  provided  other 


376  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


than  windows  and  transoms.  There  is  one  privy,  situated  outside  the 
building,  for  the  use  of  all  occupants  of  a  single  house.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  these  ranges  from  six  to  twelve.  Privies  have  water-tight  pits, 
with  ventilating  shaft  and  a  covered  seat.  There  is  very  little  plumb¬ 
ing  in  the  house,  and  in  general  water  is  procured  from  wells  on  the 
outside.  Heating  is  done  with  iron  stoves,  and  oil  is  the  lighting  mate¬ 
rial  used.  Iron  boxes  are  used  for  fuel  storage.  There  is  an  iron  range 
in  each  house.  Wooden  boxes  are  used  for  garbage  receptacles. 

The  houses  are  occupied  by  factory  operatives.  Heads  of  families 
in  four-room  tenements  earn  usually  from  800  to  900  marks  ($190.40 
to  $214.20)  annually,  the  total  earnings  of  the  family  being  from  1,700 
to  1,800  marks  ($404.60  to  $428.40). 

The  yearly  rental  paid  for  a  four-room  tenement  is  150  marks  ($35.70). 
Similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood  would  cost  192  marks 
($45.70).  Three- room  tenements  are  likewise  occupied  by  factory  oper¬ 
atives.  The  head  of  the  family  earns  annually  from  700  to  750  marks 
($166.60  to  $178.50).  The  annual  rental  paid  for  this  class  of  lodgings 
is  108  marks  ($25.70).  Fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neigbor- 
hood  from  private  parties  would  cost  144  marks  ($34.27). 

The  model  dwellings  owned  by  this  corporation  were  first  opened  for 
habitation  in  1869.  There  are  in  all  413  houses.  The  total  cost  of  the 
property,  including  the  land,  has  been  1,495,280  marks  ($355,876.64). 
The  present  estimated  valueof  the  property  is  1,800,000  marks  ($428,400). 

Tenants  may  become  proprietors  of  the  houses  they  occupy  on  the 
condition  that  they  pay  one-twelftli  of  the  cost  price  annually,  in  monthly 
installments,  with  interest  at  5  per  cent.  The  reservation  appearing 
in  the  deed  to  the  purchaser  is  that  at  least  a  10-foot  space  next  to 
the  house  must  be  left  free  from  buildings,  in  order  that  the  cottage 
feature  may  be  maintained. 

The  total  share  capital  of  this  corporation  is  330,000  marks  ($78,540), 
and  has  been  subscribed  for  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  with  joint  stock 
companies.  The  rate  of  annual  dividend  paid  on  the  share  capital 
since  the  enterprise  was  founded  has  averaged  4£  percent.  Dividends 
are  limited  to  5  per  cent.  The  total  amount  of  reserve  set  aside  up  to 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  covered  by  this  investigation  was  36,000 
marks  ($8,568),  none  of  which  had  been  expended  in  building  other 
model  dwellings.  The  average  annual  net  profit  on  the  fiscal  opera¬ 
tions,  including  both  dividend  and  reserve,  has  been  during  the  whole 
period  4§  per  cent.  The  borrowed  capital  is  490,000  marks  ($116,620), 
and  has  been  secured  from  the  City  Savings  Bank  of  Miinclien- 
Gladbach  at  4  per  cent. 

The  average  of  taxes  per  house  has  been  15  marks  ($3.57)  per  annum. 
Under  this  is  included  the  income  tax,  the  ground  and  building  tax, 
the  rent  tax,  and  the  communal  tax. 

Two  per  cent  of  the  total  lodgings  were  unoccupied  during  the  last 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


377 


year  for  which  returns  were  received,  with  a  resulting  loss  of  800  marks 
($190.40).  Kents  are  paid  monthly.  The  only  case  where  advanced 
payments  are  required  is  where  a  house  is  purchased  on  the  installment 
plan.  Kents  are  not  called  for  by  an  authorized  agent  of  the  propri¬ 
etor,  neither  are  they  retained  from  the  wages,  as  the  occupiers  are  not 
employees  of  the  corporation.  The  tenant  is  usually  allowed  to  remain 
in  arrears  from  one  to  three  months.  The  sum  lost  through  nonpay¬ 
ment  of  arrears  during  the  year  was  400  marks  ($95.20).  The  tenant 
must  give  one  month’s  notice  of  his  intention  to  leave.  Before  ejectment 
may  take  place  an  order  of  the  court  must  be  obtained  and  then  three 
month’s  time  is  allowed.  Owing  to  the  industrial  depression  and 
plethora  in  buildings  in  Gladbach  rents  fell  during  the  eighties,  but 
have  advanced  since  1890. 

The  average  duration  of  tenancy  is  about  two  years.  Tenants  may 
sublet  and  take  boarders  where  they  can  do  ho  without  violating  the 
health  laws.  Only  tenants  inhabiting  the  four  large  houses  built 
recently,  to  accommodate  from  seven  to  eight  families  each,  are  subject 
to  regulations. 

The  only  annexes  are  the  common  laundries  and  drying  rooms,  which 
are  found  in  the  tenement  houses  just  referred  to. 

The  architecture  of  the  detached  houses  is  varied,  and  the  group,  a3 
a  whole,  forms  a  very  pleasing  appearance. 

MUTUAL  BUILDING  COMPANY,  LANDSBERG  ON  THE  WANT  A. 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  upon  which  a  typical  house  of  the  Mutual 
Building  Company  ( Gemeinnutziger  Bauverein)  is  built  is  30  feet  and 
the  depth  89  feet  8  inches.  The  building  has  a  frontage  of  29  feet  6 
inches  and  a  depth  of  39  feet  7  inches.  The  unoccupied  space  serves 
as  a  garden  and  court.  The  building  is  two  stories  high,  and  is  con¬ 
structed  of  stone  and  cement.  The  roofing  is  of  tiles.  A  cellar,  with 
brick  jjavement,  is  situated  under  one-half  of  the  house.  A  single  street 
entrance  serves  for  four  families.  Very  poor  ventilation  exists,  as  the 
tenements  are  situated  back-to  back.  There  is  a  clear  open  space 
around  the  building,  however.  Privies  have  been  provided  outside  the 
building  in  the  ratio  of  one  for  every  two  families,  or  for  every  ten  to 
fourteen  persons.  The  ordinary  pit  is  the  receptacle  for  night  soil. 
There  are  no  special  sanitary  arrangements  in  relation  to  plumbing  and 
sewerage.  The  quantity  of  water  allowed  is  unlimited.  Ordinary 
earthenware  stoves  furnish  the  heating  and  oil  lamps  the  lighting.  A 
small  iron  range  has  been  put  in  each  kitchen  by  the  company.  Fuel 
storage  exists  in  sej)arate  compartments  in  the  cellar.  The  garbage 
receptacle  is  a  brick  pit  constructed  next  to  the  j>rivy.  There  are  no 
window  shutters,  porches,  or  verandas.  There  has  been  no  attempt  at 
exterior  decoration,  and  the  interior  walls  are  simply  painted. 

There  are  two  tenements,  front  and  back,  in  each  of  these  houses, 


378  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


containing  tliree  rooms  each.  The  kitchens  are  6  feet  7  inches  by  13 
feet  2  inches,  the  living  rooms  17  feet  11  inches  by  13  feet  4  inches, 
the  bedrooms  13  feet  2  inches  by  7  feet  5  inches  and  7  feet  2  inches, 
respectively.  The  ceilings  are  9  feet  4  inches  high.  There  is  also 
a  stairway  corridor  13  feet  2  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches.  The  staircase 
is  3  feet  1  inch  wide. 

The  rental  paid  for  a  three-room  tenement  of  this  kind  is  104  marks 
($24.75)  per  year.  Similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity  would  proba¬ 
bly  cost  from  130  marks  to  156  marks  ($30.94  to  $37.13).  The  houses 
are  occnpied  largely  by  laborers  earning  from  600  marks  to  800  marks 
($142.80  to  $190.40)  per  year. 

The  cost  of  the  lot  on  which  one  of  these  houses  is  built  was  1,700 
marks  ($404.60);  the  cost  of  construction  was  7,280  marks  ($1,732.64). 
The  first  building  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1889.  Tenants  may 
become  proprietors  by  paying  from  1,500  marks  to  2,000  marks  ($357  to 
$476)  cash  and  the  remainder  in  installments.  Four  per  cent  interest 
is  provided  for.  The  deed  contains  a  reservation  that  the  purchaser 
may  not  let  any  of  the  tenements  in  the  house  for  more  than  2  marks 
(48  cents)  per  week  as  long  as  he  owes  2,000  marks  ($476)  to  the 
company. 

The  share  capital  of  this  corporation  is  100,000  marks  ($23,800),  of 
which  50,000  marks  ($11,900)  have  been  paid  in.  It  is  a  joint  stock  com¬ 
pany,  where  the  dividend  is  limited  to  4  per  cent.  So  far  the  dividends 
have  been  small — 3  per  cent  the  first  year,  nothing  the  second  year,  and 
1  per  cent  the  third  year.  Including  the  reserve,  1£  per  cent  is  about  the 
average  annual  net  profit  so  far  made.  The  total  amount  of  borrowed 
capital  is  41,000  marks  ($9,758),  mainly  from  the  city  bank,  secured  by 
a  first  mortgage  on  the  property.  The  annual  rate  of  interest  paid  on 
borrowed  capital  is  4  per  cent.  A  building  tax  of  4  per  cent  of  the  rental 
value  and  a  communal  tax  of  2  per  cent  of  the  rental  value  are  paid. 

A  little  less  than  100  marks  ($23.80)  resulted  from  loss  of  rentals  of 
unoccupied  tenements  during  the  fiscal  year  1891-92.  Eents  are  paid 
weekly  in  advance,  and  are  called  for  by  an  authorized  agent  of  the 
proprietor.  Arrearages  are  not  allowed  unless  under  exceptional  cir¬ 
cumstances.  Six  months’  notice  of  intention  to  quit  is  required  from 
tenants,  though  exceptions  to  this  are  allowed.  Fourteen  days’  notice 
is  necessary  before  proceeding  to  ejectment.  It  is  estimated  that  15  to 
20  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  heads  of  tenant  families  goes  for  rent. 
The  inhabitants  of  these  dwellings  live  within  one-half  to  a  mile  and 
one- half  from  their  work. 

A  laundry  has  been  provided  for  every  four  tenements.  The  original 
cost  was  300  marks  ($71.40).  It  may  be  used  gratuitously  by  tenants. 

Houses  built  so  far  are  very  similar  in  their  architecture,  but  in  future 
constructions  it  is  anticipated  that  the  types  will  be  more  varied.  It  is 
the  opinion  of  the  president  of  this  society  that  in  building  small  houses 
those  which  shelter  four  families  are  cheapest,  and  further  that  working 
people  do  not  like  to  live  alone  in  one  house. 


HOUSES  FOR  EMPLOYEES  IN  THE  MARINE  SERVICE  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE,  FRIEDRICHSORT,  GERMANY. 


Ground  floor. 


HOUSE  FOR  EMPLOYEES  IN  THE  MARINE  SERVICE  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE,  FRIEDRICHSORT, 

Plan  No.  71  b. 


GERMAN 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  379 

MARINE  SERVICE  OP  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE,  FRIEDRICHS ORT. 

Buildings  have  been  constructed  by  the  German  government  for  the 
use  of  its  employees  in  the  marine  service.  There  are  several  types, 
one  of  which,  type  C,  is  selected  for  description.  The  lot  has  a  front¬ 
age  of  105  feet  and  a  depth  of  144  feet  4  inches.  The  house  and  out¬ 
house  occupy  but  1 ,987  square  feet  of  the  total  area  of  15,155  square  feet. 
The  space  not  built  upon  serves  in  front  as  a  parking  and  in  the  rear  of 
the  building  as  a  vegetable  garden.  The  house  is  two  stories  in  height, 
and  is  built  of  red  brick  and  finished  with  hard  wood.  No  special 
arrangements  have  been  made  in  construction  to  secure  fireproof  qual¬ 
ities.  A  cellar  has  been  dug  under  one  portion  of  the  house,  and  each 
tenant  has  a  separate  space  and  a  separate  entrance.  The  cellar  floor  is 
of  cement.  An  entrance  has  been  provided  for  each  family  inhabiting 
the  house.  A  privy,  situated  outside  the  building,  is  provided  for  each 
family.  There  is  no  pit  or  privy  vault,  but  a  barrel,  which  is  emptied 
weekly,  is  placed  underneath  to  receive  the  refuse.  The  dwelling  has 
through  circulation.  There  is  no  water  in  the  house.  Well  water  is 
used,  and  this  is  examined  periodically  by  a  bacteriologist.  There  is 
a  range  with  a  boiler  in  the  kitchen,  and  a  tiled  stove  in  the  living 
room.  In  houses  of  types  A  and  B,  where  lodgers  may  be  taken,  the 
rooms  inteuded  for  lodgers  have  iron  stoves,  provided  with  a  place  in 
which  food  can  be  kept  warm.  A  garbage  receptacle  for  each  family  is 
placed  in  the  rear  of  the  outhouse.  About  one-half  the  houses  have 
clothespresses.  Ten  of  them  have  verandas.  The  general  plan  of  the 
property,  showing  the  disposition  of  the  various  houses  of  the  several 
types  in  relation  to  one  another,  and  the  front  elevation  and  plans  of 
the  two  floors  in  houses  of  type  C  are  shown  (plans  Nos.  71  A  and  71  B). 

Kitchens  on  the  first  floor  are  8  feet  10  inches  by  7  feet  10  inches, 
living  rooms  13  feet  5  inches  by  11  feet  10  inches,  and  bedrooms  11  feet  10 
inches  by  13  feet  3  inches.  On  the  second  floor  of  this  type  of  house, 
kitchens  are  13  feet  5  inches  by  7  feet  10  inches,  living  rooms  13  feet 
3  inches  by  11  feet  10  inches,  and  bedrooms  13  feet  5  inches  by  11  feet  10 
inches.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  2  inches  in  height.  On  the  second  floor 
there  is  a  small  hallway  which,  with  the  staircase  leading  to  it,  occupies 
a  space  12  feet  8  inches  long  and  6  feet  8  inches  wide.  The  first  floor 
tenements  have  a  small  hallway  4  feet  3  inches  wide  and  7  feet  10  inches 
long. 

This  type  of  house  shelters  four  families,  each  occupying  a  three-room 
tenement.  The  annual  rental  paid  is  144  marks  ($34.27)  per  tenement. 
The  original  cost  of  the  land  was  50  pfennigs  (12  cents)  per  square 
foot,  and  the  house,  ready  for  habitation,  13,000  marks  ($3,236.80), 
exclusive  of  cost  of  lot. 

The  first  model  dwelling  house  in  the  group  was  opened  for  habita¬ 
tion  November  1,  1891.  There  are  now  34  houses  of  the  various  types 
in  the  group,  providing  40  three-room  tenements  and  48  five- room  tene¬ 
ments.  Each  of  the  latter  is  so  arranged  as  to  accommodate  two 


380  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


boarders  or  lodgers.  The  total  cost  of  the  property  has  been  484,400 
marks  ($115,287.20). 

The  amount  of  rent  received  during  the  fiscal  year  covered  by  the 
last  return  was  14,976  marks  ($3,564.29).  Tenants  are  not  permitted  to 
become  proprietors  of  the  houses  they  occupy.  They  have  been  built 
expressly  for  employees  of  the  torpedo  works,  and  if  sold  might  get  into 
other  hands;  besides,  the  people  here  are  not  so  situated  financially 
that  they  ordinarily  could  become  proprietors. 

One  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  building  is  set  aside  for  maintenance  and 
repairs.  The  annual  net  income  amounts  to  about  2  per  cent  of  the 
capital  invested,  but  it  must  be  noted  that  all  of  the  land  has  not  yet 
been  built  upon.  Rents  are  paid  monthly,  and  are  deducted  from  wages. 
Four  weeks’  notice  is  required  on  the  part  of  both  the  tenant  and  the 
landlord  for  severing  the  relation. 

The  following  table  gives  the  occupations  and  average  annual  earn¬ 
ings  of  tenants: 

OCCUPATIONS  AND  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OF  TENANTS  OF  MARINE 
SERVICE  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE,  FRIEDRICHSORT. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Draftsman  . . 

1 

$514.08 

328.44 

Foremen . 

11 

14 

314. 16 

Machine  constructors . . 

6 

442.68 

Metal  workers  _ _ ............ 

16 

200.88 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

15 

$285. 60 
228. 48 
271. 32 

2 

Miscellaneous . . . 

ii 

10 

257. 04 
242.76 

Miscellaneous-  -  - . . 

2 

About  12  per  cent  of  earnings,  on  the  average,  is  absorbed  in  rent. 
Tenants  renting  houses  of  types  A  and  B  must  agree  to  take  lodgers 
or  boarders,  as  the  houses  are  built  expressly  for  the  purpose  of 
accommodating  such  persons. 

A  laundry  in  the  outhouse  has  been  provided  for  every  two  families. 
A  public  kitchen,  costing  15,000  marks  ($3,570),  has  been  erected. 
There  is  also  a  playground  containing  about  4,000  square  feet  and  a 
park  containing  about  8,800  square  feet.  These  are  situated  in  a  corner 
of  the  grounds  of  the  colony.  A  sea  bathing  establishment  has  like¬ 
wise  been  erected  at  a  cost  of  3,000  marks  ($714).  A  library,  contain¬ 
ing  about  1,000  volumes,  has  also  been  opened.  The  cost  was  2,000 
marks  ($476).  The  annual  expense  of  maintenance  for  the  bathing 
house  is  fixed  at  1  per  cent  of  the  cost,  the  public  kitchen  at  1  per  cent, 
and  the  library  at  10  per  cent.  The  average  number  of  persons  mak¬ 
ing  use  of  these  annexes  varies,  but  there  is  always  a  satisfactory 
clientage. 

During  the  year  ending  November,  1892,  the  death  rate  among  chil¬ 
dren  under  5  years  was  12.2  per  1,000,  and  among  all  occupants  18.9  per 
1,000.  There  were  fifty  births  during  the  year,  all  of  which  were  legiti¬ 
mate.  No  criminal  convictions  occurred  among  this  population  during 
the  same  period. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


381 


MUTUAL  BUILDING  COMPANY,  NEUS9. 

A  typical  model  dwelling  of  the  Mutual  Building  Company  of  Reuss 
( Neusser  Gemeinniitziger  Bauverein)  is  a  brick  house  containing  two 
stories  and  an  attic  and  a  cellar  paved  with  bricks.  A  privy,  placed 
outside  the  building,  is  provided  for  the  sole  use  of  each  family.  The 
house  contains  2  four-room  tenements  with  corridors.  The  kitchen  is 
11  feet  6  inches  by  9  feet  10  inches,  the  living  room  11  feet  6  inches 
by  11  feet  10  inches,  the  bedrooms  11  feet  6  inches  by  9  feet  7  inches 
and  11  feet  6  inches  by  12  feet  3  inches,  respectively.  The  attic  space 
is  divided  into  a  small  bedroom  and  a  room  for  storage. 

The  original  cost  of  the  lot  was  450  marks  ($107.10),  and  of  the  build¬ 
ing  3,000  marks  ($714).  In  the  house  which  has  just  been  described 
each  tenement  rents  for  200  marks  ($47.60)  annually.  The  probable 
cost  of  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity  is  250  marks  to  300  marks 
($59.50  to  $71.40). 

The  first  model  dwelling  house  owned  by  this  company  was  opened 
for  habitation  in  1891.  The  total  number  now  owned  by  the  company 
is  23.  The  architecture  of  the  different  buildings  is  somewhat  varied. 
Tenants  may  become  proprietors  by  paying  the  purchase  money  in 
monthly  installments  during  a  period  of  ten  years.  Five  per  cent  inter¬ 
est  has  been  provided  for  in  these  installments.  The  amount  of  share 
capital  of  the  company  is  64,000  marks  ($15,232).  Dividends  are  lim¬ 
ited  to  4  per  cent.  A  sum  amounting  to  2,580.35  marks  ($614.12)  has 
been  set  aside  as  a  reserve.  Capital  to  the  amount  of  30,000  marks 
($7,140)  has  been  borrowed  of  the  state  bank  at  Dusseldorf.  Four  per 
cent  interest  is  paid  on  this.  The  property  of  this  company  is  exempt 
from  taxation  by  ministerial  decree  of  July  7, 1892. 

There  were  no  losses  of  rental  from  unoccupied  tenements,  or  arrear¬ 
ages.  Two  months  is  the  longest  period  a  tenant  may  remain  in 
arrears.  Bents  are  paid  monthly  in  advance.  Three  months’  notice 
is  required  of  intention  to  quit.  Rents  consume  from  16  to  20  per 
cent  of  the  earnings  of  heads  of  tenant  families. 

The  following  are  the  occupations  and  average  annual  earnings  of 
heads  of  tenant  families  : 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  TENANT 
FAMILIES  IN  HOUSES  OF  MUTUAL  BUILDING  COMPANY. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

4 

$261.  80 

Laborers . 

9 

$333.  20 

7 

476.  00 

7 

226. 10 

5 

333.  20 

Millers . 

3 

285.60 

Firemen _ _ _ _ 

4 

285.  60 

Oil  workers . 

4 

333.  20 

3 

238.  00 

Oil  workers . 

7 

285.  60 

Iron  workers . 

e 

285.  60 

Railway  employees . . 

24 

238.  00 

9 

214.  20 

Rope  makers . . 

4 

214.  20 

Laborers  . . 

11 

440.  30 

10 

285.60 

Laborers . 

4 

202. 30 

382  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 
MULHOUSE  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MULHOUSE. 

The  Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  ( Societe  Mulhousi- 
enne  des  Cites  Ouvrieres)  was  founded  in  1853  by  M.  Jean  Doilfus.  He 
had  made  a  study  in  England  of  the  methods  of  erecting  houses  to  be 
sold  to  workingmen,  and  had  returned  to  his  native  city  profoundly  con¬ 
vinced  that  the  acquisition  of  a  healthy  home  on  favorable  terms  was 
of  incalculable  benefit  not  merely  to  the  workingman  but  to  the 
employer  as  well. 

Under  the  direction  of  M.  Emile  Muller,  architect,  M.  Doilfus  erected 
four  houses  of  different  types  at  Dornach  as  an  experiment.  After  a 
number  of  months’  trial  the  tenants  were  consulted  as  to  their  prefer¬ 
ence,  with  the  result  that  a  definite  type  was  adopted,  which  bears  to 
the  present  time  the  name  of  the  “Mulhouse”  type.  This  consists  of 
four  houses  grouped  in  the  center  of  a  plot  of  ground,  the  houses  being 
separated  from  one  another  by  interior  walls  running  at  right  angles. 
Each  family  possesses  an  angle  of  the  structure,  thus  giving  two  expos¬ 
ures,  permitting  openings  on  two  sides,  and  rendering  the  houses  health¬ 
ful  and  pleasant.  The  plot  of  ground  is  divided  into  four  equal  parts, 
each  adjoining  the  dwelling  to  which  it  pertains. 

The  ground  belonging  to  each  house  has  an  area  of  1,722  square  feet, 
and  the  space  built  upon  covers  347  square  feet.  The  unoccupied 
land  is  utilized  for  garden  purposes.  The  houses  of  this  type  are  two 
stories  high,  the  exterior  walls  having  a  covering  of  rough  mortar. 
The  window  and  door  sills  are  of  stone.  Each  house  has  a  frontage  of 
20  feet  4  inches  and  a  depth  of  17  feet  1  inch.  The  houses  are  31  feet 
high  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  Each  house  contains  four  rooms  and  an 
attic  and  cellar.  Water  is  supplied  from  wells.  The  privies  are  out¬ 
side  the  building.  The  cost  of  each  house  was  2,331.50  francs  ($449.98), 
which,  added  to  the  price  of  the  land,  160  francs  ($30.88),  amounted 
to  2,491.50  francs  ($480.86).  The  annual  rent  is  187.50  francs  ($36.19). 
The  tenants  may  become  proprietors  in  fifteen  years  by  paying  6  francs 
($1.16)  additional  per  month. 

A  second  type  of  houses  at  Mulhouse  is  also  built  in  blocks  of  four 
and  grouped  as  those  described  above,  only  they  are  of  one  story.  The 
ground  belonging  to  each  house  contains  1,615  square  feet,  and  the 
space  built  upon  covers  473  square  feet  of  this.  Each  house  has  a  front¬ 
age  of  23  feet  5  inches  and  a  depth  of  20  feet  2  inches.  The  houses 
are  23  feet  high  to  the  ridge  of  the  roof.  Each  house  contains  three 
rooms  and  an  attic  and  cellar.  The  cost  of  each  house  of  this  type  was 
2,650  francs  ($511.45),  and  of  the  land  150  francs  ($28.95),  making  a 
total  of  2,800  francs  ($540.40).  The  annual  rent  is  168  francs  ($32.42). 
By  the  payment  of  6  francs  ($1.16)  more  per  month  tenants  may 
become  proprietors  in  fifteen  years. 

A  third  type  of  these  houses  is  built  in  blocks  of  four  in  the  center  of 
a  plot  of  ground  and  grouped  as  in  the  preceding  types.  The  houses 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


383 


are  two  stories  high,  and  each  contains  a  kitchen  paved  with  bricks, 
a  living  room,  two  bedrooms,  and  a  cellar  and  attic.  The  cost  per 
house  was  2,617.75  francs  ($505.23). 

A  fourth  type  of  these  houses  is  built  in  rows,  with  gardens  in  front 
and  courts  in  the  rear.  The  houses  are  two  stories  high,  and  each  set 
of  two  is  separated  from  the  others  by  a  heavy  fire  wall  extending 
above  the  roof.  A  part  of  these  houses  have  each  a  kitchen  and  four 
rooms,  while  others  have  each  a  kitchen  and  five  rooms.  Each  of  the 
corner  houses  has  a  kitchen  and  six  rooms.  The  houses  have  rear 
extensions,  which  contain  sculleries  and  privies.  There  are  attics, 
which  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  used  as  bedrooms.  The  cost  of 
a  coiner  house  was  3,500  francs  ($675.50);  those  intermediate,  3,000 
francs  ($579)  each. 

A  fifth  type  of  houses  is  built  in  rows,  back-to-back.  Each  house 
has  a  large  garden  in  front  extending  to  the  street.  The  houses  are 
two  stories  high.  The  interior  arrangement  of  rooms  varies  consider¬ 
ably.  All  the  houses  have  attics.  Some  have  cellars,  while  others  have 
simply  excavations  for  wine  storage.  Privies  are  in  the  interior.  The 
cost  of  a  corner  house  was  2,150  francs  ($414.95) ;  each  of  those  inter¬ 
mediate,  1,850  francs  ($357.05).  A  house  facing  south  is  valued  at  200 
francs  ($38.60)  more  than  one  having  a  different  exposure. 

Up  to  June  30, 1877,  there  had  been  erected  948  houses.  Eleven  years 
later  there  were  1,124  houses.  The  capital  stock  of  the  society  was 
fixed  at  355,000  francs  ($68,515),  and  divided  among  seventy-one  share¬ 
holders.  A  maximum  dividend  of  4  per  cent  has  been  regularly  dis¬ 
tributed.  A  decennial  report  of  the  operations  of  the  society  is  made, 
so  that  figures  later  than  1888  are  not  available;  but  up  to  that  year 
the  1,124  houses  which  had  been  built  were  valued  at  3,485,275  francs 
($672,658.08).  At  that  time  4,584,020  francs  ($884,715.86)  had  been 
paid  by  purchasers,  and  424,949  francs  ($82,015.16)  were  still  due. 

A  gift  of  300,000  francs  ($57,900)  was  made  by  Emperor  Napoleon 
III  in  aid  of  this  enterprise.  The  sum  was  not  placed  to  the  capital 
fund,  but  was  applied  to  the  construction  of  streets,  sewers,  baths, 
public  washhouses,  pumps,  and  planting  of  trees,  expenditures  which 
are  generally  incurred  by  municipalities. 

In  1877  the  houses  with  ground  floor  and  one  story  sold  for  3,740 
francs  ($721.82)  each;  those  with  the  ground  floor  only  for  2,860  francs 
($551.98)  each.  In  1888  the  prices  were  4,928  francs  ($951.10)  and  3,036 
francs  ($585.95),  respectively,  or  an  increased  cost  of  about  32  per  cent 
and  6  per  cent.  Houses  of  one  story  only  have  not  been  built  since  1886, 
the  working  people  preferring  two-storv  structures  with  even  larger 
dimensions  than  the  original  ones.  This  is  the  principal  reason  for 
the  increased  cost.  Other  improvements,  such  as  replacing  wooden 
with  iron  fences  and  drainage  of  cellars,  have  also  enhanced  the  price. 
The  society  in  1888  had  room  upon  its  land  for  124  houses  additional. 
After  these  had  been  built  it  purposed  going  elsewhere,  for  the  laud 


384  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


immediately  adjoining  had  become  too  valuable  to  continue  operations 
there.  The  price  per  square  meter  had  increased  from  44  centimes 
(8£  cents)  to  13  francs  ($2.51).  Houses  are  sold  on  an  easy  system  of 
gradual  payment.  The  payments  are  spread  over  a  period  of  fifteen 
years,  and  vary  with  the  amount  of  rent  or  value  of  the  house.  The 
society  introduced  into  its  deeds  of  sale  various  special  clauses,  such 
as  prohibition  of  construction  of  any  buildings  in  the  garden,  and  for¬ 
bidding  the  sale  or  subletting  of  the  property  within  ten  years  after 
the  date  of  the  contract.  While  the  first  houses  built  were  easily 
rented,  the  tenants  did  not  appreciate  the  advantages  of  acquisition 
sufficiently  well  to  purchase.  At  the  end  of  1856  only  72  out  232 
houses  had  been  sold.  A  few  years  afterwards  structures  were  sold  in 
advance  while  still  in  course  of  erection. 

An  official  estimate  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  attending 
the  work  of  this  corporation  is  as  follows: 

In  making  the  workingman  an  owner  of  his  house  the  society  has 
rendered  a  great  service.  It  has  made  him  a  fixed  resident;  it  has 
attached  him  to  his  country;  it  has  made  him  understand  the  value  of 
saving,  and  has  created  in  him  the  desire  for  property,  habits  of  perse¬ 
verance,  and  has  shown  the  fruitful  results  of  provident  effort.  But  in 
another  way  the  sale  of  houses  has  had  an  unfortunate  effect.  The 
tenants,  when  they  had  completely  acquired  possession,  began  to  abuse 
their  privileges.  In  many  cases  houses  were  mortgaged  to  usurers  and 
sold.  Again,  at  the  death  of  the  head  of  the  family  the  distribution 
of  the  estate  among  several  heirs  necessitated  the  sale  of  houses,  which 
then  passed  into  unworthy  hands,  and  future  tenants  were  exploited  for 
all  that  could  be  gotten  from  them.  Overcrowding  has  often  resulted 
from  the  renting  of  single  rooms  or  dividing  one  dwelling  into  two  or 
more  tenements.  In  some  cases,  in  the  larger  houses,  three  families 
have  lived  in  one  house — one  on  the  ground  floor,  one  on  the  floor  above, 
and  one  in  the  attic. 

The  census  made  in  1884  disclosed  the  fact  that  the  1,028  houses  then 
existing  sheltered  7,642  people,  or  7.4  persons  per  house.  This  figure 
is  50  per  cent  higher  than  it  should  be,  especially  when  it  is  considered 
that  364  houses  had  only  a  ground  floor. 

Two  of  the  types  of  houses  at  Mulliouse  are  shown  in  the  accompany¬ 
ing  plans  (plans  Nos.  72  and  73). 

FRIEDRICH  KRUPP,  ESSEN. 

Among  the  many  philanthropic  activities  of  this  firm  housing  plays 
a  very  considerable  part.  The  census  in  May,  1892,  revealed  the  fact 
that  the  total  number  of  persons  employed  was  25,200;  the  members 
of  their  families  amounted  to  62,700,  so  that  the  total  population  was 
87,900.  Of  this  total  number  15,300  lived  in  houses  owned  by  the 
heads  of  families  and  25,800  lived  in  houses  owned  by  the  company. 
Houses  are  not  built  merely  for  rental,  but  money  is  also  advanced 
to  working  people  who  are  desirous  of  building  dwellings  for  them¬ 
selves.  In  1889  Herr  Friedrich  Alfred  Krupp  set  aside  500,000  marks 
($119,000)  for  the  purpose  of  making  loans  to  his  employees  earning 


Elevation. 


Second  floor. 


Street. 


Block  plan— four  houses  in  block. 


HOUSE  OF  TYPE  1  OF  THE  MULHOUSE  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MULHOUSE, 

GERMANY. 


Plan  No.  72. 


Front  elevation. 


Ground  floor.  Section. 


HOUSE  OF  TYPE  2  OF  THE  MULHOUSE  WORKINGMEN’S  DWELLINGS  COMPANY,  MULHOUSE, 

GERMANY. 


Plan  No.  73. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


385 


under  3,000  marks  ($714)  per  year  to  build  their  own  homes.  This  was 
in  addition  to  continuing  the  construction  of  new  dwellings  for  renting. 
The  rate  of  interest  on  these  loans  is  3  per  cent,  and  the  technical  serv¬ 
ices  of  the  firm  are  furnished  free.  The  borrower  can  build  in  what¬ 
ever  style  he  pleases,  provided  he  does  not  violate  any  general  building 
regulations.  The  conditions  are  that  the  borrower  must  make  a  first 
payment  of  at  least  300  marks  ($71.40),  give  a  mortgage  on  his  property, 
and  provide  for  the  repayment  in  regular  installments  during  a  period 
of  not  more  than  twenty-five  years.  The  workman  must  have  been  in 
the  employ  of  the  firm  and  in  good  standing  for  at  least  three  years;  he 
must  be  married  and  be  between  the  ages  of  25  and  50  years,  and  ho 
must  have  completed  his  term  of  military  service.  A  few  further  con¬ 
ditions  and  exceptions  are  laid  down,  but  these  are  of  minor  importance. 

The  Krupp  firm  began  building  houses  to  rent  to  working  people  in 
1861,  and  have  continued  the  work  without  interruption  until  the  present 
time.  Three  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty  nine  dwellings,  not  includ¬ 
ing  43  which  are  given  free  of  rent,  are  now  occupied  by  tenants  in  Essen 
and  vicinity.  The  original  cost  was  1,213,624  marks  ($288,842.51)  for 
land  and  11,042,451  marks  ($2,628,103.34)  for  buildings.  In  addition, 
there  are  523  rent-bearing  dwellings  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines  and  at 
other  works  outside  of  Essen,  which  cost  200,635  marks  ($47,751.13) 
for  land  and  1,541,700  marks  ($366,924.60)  for  buildings,  and  131 
dwellings  which  are  given  free  of  rent.  The  gross  rental  of  the  Essen 
group  during  the  fiscal  year  1892  was  484,675  marks  ($115,352.65) 
and  the  net  return  2.1  per  cent,  without  allowance  for  depreciation. 
The  gross  rental  from  the  other  groups  mentioned  was  67,045  marks 
($15,956.71)  and  the  net  profit  2.58  per  cent,  without  depreciation.  This 
rented  property  will  not  be  sold  to  occupants,  but  all  wishing  to  buy 
may,  under  the  conditions  previously  mentioned,  obtain  advances  for 
building  to  suit  themselves. 

The  rented  houses  are  extremely  popular,  and  when  dwellings  are 
vacated  applicants  are  so  numerous  that,  as  a  rule,  only  such  as  have 
been  ten  years  in  the  company’s  employ  are  considered.  Seniority, 
other  things  being  equal,  is  the  ground  of  preference.  The  strict  regula¬ 
tions,  far  from  being  regarded  oppressive  and  as  tending  to  keep  people 
away,  are  considered  desirable  and  necessary  by  the  better  class  of  work¬ 
ing  people.  Tenants  are  required  to  vacate  their  dwellings  when  they 
leave  or  are  expelled  from  the  firm’s  employ.  Changes  in  tenancy  dur 
ing  the  years  1889, 1890,  and  1891,  show  that  out  of  3,659  leaseholders 
43  were  dismissed  for  quarreling,  for  improper  conduct,  for  carelessness 
with  fire,  and  for  dishonesty,  and  70  vacated  their  dwellings  because  of 
dismissal  from  the  service,  from  having  been  pensioned,  or  from  having 
acquired  homes  of  their  own.  During  the  same  period  190  voluntarily 
vacated  on  account  of  removal,  acquisition  of  homes  of  their  own,  and 
for  other  causes.  Houses  never  remain  vacant,  so  that  there  is  no  loss 
to  the  proprietor  from  empties.  Subletting  and  taking  boarders  is  per- 
H.  Ex.  354 - 25 


386  SPECIAL  KEPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


mitted,  under  careful  supervision  of  the  firm.  The  number  of  boarders 
and  lodgers  in  1889, 1890,  and  1891,  was  139,  238,  and  264,  respectively. 

The  houses  built  vary  considerably  in  size.  There  are  tenement 
houses  designed  to  accommodate  twelve  families,  four  on  each  of  three 
floors.  They  are  not  constructed  so  as  to  afford  through  ventilation 
from  front  to  rear.  They  have  two  interior  staircases,  one  at  each  of  the 
extreme  ends  of  the  building.  Water-closets  are  near  the  entrances, 
there  being  four  on  each  floor.  They  are  accessible  from  the  staircase 
landing,  and  are  completely  isolated.  Sir  families  use  one  staircase, 
reckoning  from  the  ground  floor  to  the  highest  story.  Two  rooms  in 
each  tenement  open  to  the  staircase.  There  are  no  hallways  or  cor¬ 
ridors  in  which  people  can  congregate.  Each  room  communicates 
directly  with  the  open  air.  Two  dead  walls,  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  pass  through  the  center  of  the  building,  thus  separating  it  into 
four  dwellings  on  each  floor.  This  gives  to  dwellings  somewhat  of  the 
character  of  back-to-back  houses,  and  the  only  free  circulation  of  air 
is  in  a  diagonal  direction  through  the  staircase  windows  and  those  in 
the  rooms.  This  type  of  house  is  severely  plain  in  outward  appear¬ 
ance. 

A  typical  house  for  four  families  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  plan 
(plan  Ko.  74).  The  frontage  of  the  lot  is  111  feet  7  inches  and  the 
depth  78  feet  9  inches.  A  little  over  three  fourths  of  the  space  is 
devoted  to  garden  and  court.  The  house  is  two  stories  high,  and  is  built 
of  stone.  The  roofing  is  of  tiles,  and  the  steps  and  window  sills  are  of 
stone.  There  is  a  cellar  which  is  properly  paved.  Each  family  has  its 
own  entrance.  There  is  a  privy  for  each  family  in  the  side  extension 
on  the  first  floor.  The  sanitary  arrangements  are  somewhat  primitive, 
there  being  simply  a  pit.  There  is  an  unlimited  quantity  of  water, 
which  is  obtained  through  a  service  established  by  the  firm.  There  is 
a  large  pantry  in  the  side  extension.  All  rooms  have  chimney  connec¬ 
tions.  There  are  no  window  shutters  or  porches,  and  the  exterior  is 
quite  plain.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  10  inches  high.  Kitchens  are  6  feet  9 
inches  by  9  feet  6  inches,  living  rooms  16  feet  5  inches  by  13  feet  1 
inch,  bedrooms  16  feet  5  inches  by  10  feet  1  inch  and  9  feet  10  inches 
by  9  feet  2  inches,  respectively.  The  rentals  paid  for  this  accommoda¬ 
tion  vary  from  160  to  180  marks  ($38.08  to  $42.84)  per  annum.  The 
original  cost  of  lot  and  building  was  18,000  marks  ($4,284). 

The  various  institutions  established  by  the  firm  for  the  benefit  of  its 
working  people  are  too  well  known  to  need  description,  except  perhaps 
the  lodging  houses.  There  are  two  of  these,  one  known  as  the  Freistadt 
Barracks,  the  other  a  general  lodging  house.  The  former  is  a  massive 
structure,  containing  a  vaulted  cellar,  three  stories,  and  an  attic.  It  has 
accommodation  for  1,200  men.  Dining  rooms  adjoin  the  kitchen  and 
serve  also  as  sitting  rooms.  There  is  a  restaurant  in  the  building,  where 
bread,  tobacco,  beer,  etc.,  are  sold,  and  where  newspapers  and  other  ; 
reading  material  are  on  file.  In  1870,  when  the  lack  of  housing  accom- 


HOUSES  IN  GROUP  "  DREI  LINDEN,"  OF  FRIEDRICH  KRUPP,  ESSEN,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  74. 


HOUSE  OF  D.  PETERS  AND  COMPANY,  NEVIQES,  GERMANY. 

Plan  No.  75. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


387 


modation  was  felt,  the  company  erected  a  lodging  and  eating  house  to 
accommodate  80  persons.  This  was  subsequently  turned  over  to  a  lessee, 
under  special  supervision.  In  this  institution  rooms  afford  accommo¬ 
dation  for  one,  two,  and,  at  the  most,  six  beds.  Board  and  lodging 
costs  1.10  marks  (26  cents)  per  head  per  day.  Of  this  the  firm  receives 
15  pfennigs  (3£  cents)  for  rent  of  building  and  use  of  furniture  and 
utensils. 

Only  employees  of  the  firm  can  be  received  at  the  lodging  houses. 
Upon  entering,  each  lodger  is  furnished  an  iron  bedstead,  containing  a 
mattress  stuffed  with  sea  grass,  a  pillow  made  of  the  same  material,  two 
woolen  covers,  a  bedspread  and  sheet,  a  pillowcase,  a  towel,  a  sponge, 
and  a  locker  with  a  key.  He  is  held  responsible  for  these  articles. 
Meals  are  furnished  daily  from  11.30  a.  m.  to  1  p.  m.  and  from  6  to  9 
p.  m.  Coffee  and  butter  are  furnished  every  Sunday  morning  for  the 
current  week.  Sitting  and  eating  rooms  are  open  from  5.30  a.  m.  to 
10  p.  m. 

Lodgers  make  their  own  beds  before  leaving  in  the  morning.  The 
regulation  and  interior  management  of  the  lodging  houses  are  very 
similar  to  those  at  military  barracks,  even  to  the  extent  of  appointing 
orderlies,  demanding  respect  to  the  latter,  levying  fines  for  the  viola¬ 
tion  of  rules,  etc.  The  managers  are  obliged  to  furnish  written  reports 
to  the  firm,  stating  the  amount  of  provisions  received  and  consumed, 
the  number  of  persons  admitted  to  and  leaving  the  lodging  houses, 
persons  employed  as  assistants,  servants,  and  other  helpers,  as  well  as 
an  inventory. 

D.  PETERS  AND  COMPANY,  NEVIGES. 

The  frontage  of  the  lot  upon  which  a  typical  house  of  this  company 
is  situated  is  39  feet  4  inches  and  the  depth  49  feet  3  inches.  A  space 
21  feet  4  inches  by  25  feet  1  inch  is  occupied  by  the  dwelling.  The 
remainder  of  the  lot,  constituting  about  73  per  cent,  is  open  space,  situ¬ 
ated  at  th’e  side  and  rear  of  the  building.  It  is  used  as  a  garden  for 
vegetables  and  fruit  trees.  The  house  is  one  and  one-half  stories  high 
and  is  built  of  brick.  The  cellar  is  vaulted  and  paved  with  bricks.  All 
i-uomf  twve  through  ventilation.  There  is  a  privy  situated  inside  the 
building.  A  vaulted  pit,  adjoining  the  outer  wall  of  the  cellar  and 
under  the  rear  end  of  the  building,  receives  the  refuse.  W ater  supply 
is  furnished,  and  an  unlimited  quantity  is  allowed.  Heating  is  done 
by  iron  stoves,  and  lighting  by  oil  lamps.  The  cooking  range,  stoves 
in  the  living  rooms,  and  lamps  are  furnished  by  the  tenant.  Window 
and  door  sills  are  trimmed  with  red  and  black  bricks. 

The  front  elevation  and  interior  arrangement  of  two  contiguous 
houses  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  75). 

Each  house  contains  five  rooms.  The  kitchen  is  10  feet  11  inches 
by  8  feet,  the  living  room  13  feet  5  inches  by  10  feet  11  inches,  and  a 
bedroom  13  feet  5  inches  by  8  feet.  These  are  on  the  first  floor.  The 


388  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


upper  half-story  contains  one  bedroom  13  feet  5  inches  by  10  feet  11 
inches,  and  a  second  one  13  feet  5  inches  by  8  feet;  also  a  room  used 
for  drying  clothes.  Ceilings  are  9  feet  10  inches  high  in  the  first 
story  and  8  feet  4  inches  in  the  upper  half-story. 

The  rental  for  this  type  of  house  is  208  marks  ($49.50)  annually. 
Similar  accommodation  in  the  neighborhood  would  cost  about  270 
marks  ($04.26).  Rents  are  fixed  at  8  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  house,  : 
minus  20  per  cent  of  the  annual  payments.  The  original  cost  of  the 
lot  upon  which  the  house  is  built  was  500  marks  ($119) ;  the  construc¬ 
tion  cost  3,250  marks  ($773.50). 

There  are  46  model  dwelling  houses  in  the  group — 18  of  four  rooms, 
25  of  five  rooms,  2  of  six  rooms,  and  1  of  seven  rooms.  The  first  dwell¬ 
ing  was  opened  for  habitation  May  1, 1880.  The  total  estimated  value 
of  the  property  is  142,070  marks  ($33,812.66). 

The  rental  quoted  above  includes  annual  installments  paid  by  occu¬ 
pants,  who  are  obliged  to  become  purchasers.  Eight  per  cent  of  the  j 
value  of  the  house  is  paid  upon  assuming  possession,  and  after  that  8 
per  cent  annually  until  the  property  is  paid  for.  As  5  per  cent  of  this 
is  counted  as  rent  the  houses  will  be  fully  paid  for  in  seventeen  years. 

The  following  deductions  are  made  by  the  company  on  the  annual 
payments:  When  the  head  of  the  family  has  served  for  one  year  and 
over  in  the  employ  of  the  company,  20  per  cent  of  the  amount  annually 
due  is  deducted;  when  he  has  served  five  years  and  over,  25  per  cent 
is  deducted ;  when  he  has  served  ten  years  and  over,  30  per  cent  is 
deducted.  For  every  child  in  the  employ  of  the  company  one  year  and 
over,  5  per  cent  is  deducted.  In  no  case,  however,  can  the  total  of 
deductions  reach  beyond  40  per  cent.  When  the  head  of  the  family  is 
not  in  the  employ  of  the  company,  but  where  two  or  more  children  are, 
a  deduction  is  also  granted,  but  the  amount  is  fixed  in  each  individual 
case.  Purchasers  are  not  permitted  to  use  the  premises  for  any  other 
purpose  than  as  a  dwelling,  and  can  not  utilize  any  part  of  the  house 
as  a  workshop,  saloon,  store,  etc.  Neither  are  they  allowed  to  make 
any  alterations  or  additions  to  the  building. 

The  tenant  pays  the  taxes  and  insurance.  Installments  are  paid 
quarterly.  The  cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  must  be  paid  by  the 
tenant  purchaser,  but  annually  the  company  voluntarily  contributes 
toward  the  payment  of  such  items. 

The  state  building  tax  amounts  to  4  per  cent  of  the  rental  value  of 
the  house,  and  the  city  building  tax  to  2  per  cent  of  the  rental  value. 
Payments  of  rent  are  deducted  from  weekly  wages,  but  carried  quarterly 
on  the  books.  There  have  been  no  arrearages  so  far.  Six  months’ 
notice  is  required  of  intention  to  leave,  but  the  proprietor  has  no  right 
to  eject  tenants  unless  they  violate  the  contract.  There  is  no  clause 
giving  the  proprietor  the  right  to  summarily  eject  tenants  in  case  of 
strikes  or  leaving  employment.  During  the  past  ten  years  the  cost  of 
building  material  has  advanced  about  10  per  cent,  and  consequently 
the  payments  on  new  property  have  been  correspondingly  raised. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES.  389 

The  occupations  and  average  annual  earnings  of  heads  of  tenant 
families  appear  in  the  following  table : 


OCCUPATIONS  AND  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EARNINGS  OF  HEADS  OF  TENANT 
FAMILIES  IN  HOUSES  OF  D.  PETERS  AND  COMPANY. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Average 

annual 

earnings. 

4 

$523. 60 
273. 70 

7 

35 

219. 90 

From  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  tenants  goes  for  rent.  As 
a  rule  tenancy  is  permanent.  Whenever  more  room  is  available  than 
is  needed  for  the  purposes  of  tbe  family  the  tenants  may  sublet  or 
receive  boarders  upon  special  authorization. 

All  tenants  live  within  half  a  mile  of  their  places  of  work.  An 
annex,  containing  a  cooking  school  for  girls,  a  manual  training  school 
for  boys,  in  which  cardboard  work,  modeling,  carpentry,  turning,  and 
wood  carving  are  features  of  instruction,  a  kindergarten,  a  hall  for 
children’s  games,  a  sewing  school  for  girls,  a  large  hall  used  for  read¬ 
ing,  musical,  and  singing  societies,  and  a  reading  room,  with  library 
adjoining,  has  been  opened  in  connection  with  this  group  of  model 
dwelling  houses. 

A  large  park,  with  terraces,  groves,  and  playgrounds,  surrounds  this 
building.  These  institutions  are  for  the  free  use  of  employees  of  the 
company,  whether  tenants  of  its  model  dwellings  or  not.  They  are 
utilized  by  450  workmen  and  office  employees,  with  their  families. 

The  architecture  of  the  houses  is  pleasingly  varied. 

VILLERO'X'  AND  BOCH,  METTLACH. 

Messrs.  Villeroy  and  Boch,  who  have  large  earthenware  and  mosaic 
works,  have  built  for  their  working  people  houses  affording  accommo¬ 
dation  to  152  families,  at  a  total  cost,  including  ground,  of  517,263.80 
marks  ($123,108.78).  Of  this  sum  111,365.39  marks  ($26,504.96)  had 
been  repaid  in  installments  up  to  January  1,  1893. 

The  buildings  are  one  and  one-half  stories  high  and  have  gardens  at 
the  sides  and  rear.  The  total  area  of  the  lot  upon  which  two  houses 
structurally  contiguous  are  placed  is  7,535  square  feet.  Six  thousand 
three  hundred  and  thirteen  square  feet  is  used  principally  as  a  vege¬ 
table  garden.  The  houses  are  built  of  sandstone,  and  the  two  dwell¬ 
ings  are  divided  by  a  20-inch  fire  wall.  Twenty-three  feet  of  open  space 
exists  between  the  different  double  houses.  There  is  a  cellar  paved 
with  bricks.  One  privy  for  each  family  is  placed  outside  about  20  feet 
from  the  building.  On  the  average  seven  persons  use  a  privy.  The 
ordinary  provision  is  a  water-tight  pit,  into  which  ashes  and  other 
refuse  are  also  thrown.  This  refuse  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.  There  are 
no  sewerage  or  water  pipes.  A  well  furnishes  an  unlimited  quantity  of 


390  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

water.  Heating  is  done  by  stoves.  Streets  are  lighted  with  gas.  The 
dwellings  are  lighted  with  oil  lamps  at  the  expense  of  the  tenant. 
A  cooking  range  and  two  heating  stoves  are  placed  in  each  dwelling. 
A  space  in  the  cellar  has  been  reserved  for  fuel  storage.  There  is  no 
exterior  decoration  of  any  kind,  the  walls  being  entirely  plain  and  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  projecting  roof. 

Each  double  house  contains  2  four-room  tenements,  in  which  the 
kitchens  are  13  feet  1  inch  by  9  feet  4  inches,  the  living  rooms  12  feet 
2  inches  by  12  feet  2  inches,  the  bedrooms  13  feet  1  inch  by  9  feet,  and 
the  attic  rooms  11  feet  10  inches  by  9  feet  2  inches. 

The  dwellings  are  occupied  by  factory  operatives,  and  the  average 
annual  earnings  of  the  head  of  a  family  range  from  750  to  1,200 
marks  ($178.50  to  $285.60).  The  original  cost  of  the  land  upon  which 
this  type  of  house  is  built  was  485  marks  ($115.43).  The  house  itself 
cost  2,665  marks  ($634.27).  The  first  dwelling  was  opened  for  habita¬ 
tion  October  1,  1888. 

The  conditions  of  tenancy  or  of  purchase  of  house  are  as  follows: 

1.  Ground  is  sold  at  the  actual  cost. 

2.  Five  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  house  and  lot  is  paid  annually,  of 
which  3  per  cent  is  interest  on  capital  invested  and  2  per  cent  is  pay¬ 
ment  on  the  principal.  This  makes  the  sum  required  about  50  per  cent 
less  than  that  required  for  similar  lodgings  in  the  vicinity. 

3.  During  the  first  ten  years  the  house  remains  the  property  of  the 
proprietor  of  the  establishment,  but  the  tenancy  can  only  be  dissolved 
daring  this  period  if  the  tenant  quits  the  service  of  the  employer  or  if 
he  fails  to  pay  promptly. 

4.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  the  tenant  can  either  return  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  house  to  the  proprietor  and  have  the  money  which  he  has 
paid  on  the  principal  refunded,  or  he  can  acquire  the  house  by  continu¬ 
ing  his  payments  as  during  the  first  ten  years.  This  will,  however,  be 
the  minimum  amount  that  can  be  paid  annually.  The  purchase  price, 
which  is  the  original  cost  of  the  property,  may  be  liquidated  at  any 
time  by  payment  in  any  amounts  the  tenant  proprietor  sees  fit  to  make. 

5.  The  house  must  serve  only  for  dwelling  purposes  of  the  tenant. 

6.  Ordinary  repairs  and  insurance  are  paid  for  by  the  firm  during  the 
first  ten  years,  tenants  being  held  responsible  for  unnecessary  damage. 
Alterations  and  additions  to  the  building  will  be  made  by  the  firm  if 
desirable,  and  the  expense  charged  to  the  purchase  price  of  the  property. 

The  land  and  building  tax  amounts  to  about  3.60  marks  (86  cents) 
annually.  There  was  no  loss  of  rental  to  Messrs.  Villeroy  and  Boch 
from  unoccupied  houses  during  the  fiscal  year  in  which  the  inquiry 
was  made,  as  all  were  filled.  Rents  are  paid  monthly,  when  accrued. 
There  is  a  clause  in  the  rental  contract  giving  the  proprietors  the  right 
of  summary  ejectment  in  case  the  tenant  leaves  their  employment. 
Rents  have  neither  advanced  nor  declined  since  the  company  com 
menced  business. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


391 


A  hall  for  meeting  and  social  purposes  has  been  constructed  over  a 
store  owned  by  the  firm  and  situated  near  the  group  of  houses.  This 
hall  may  be  used  gratuitously  by  the  tenants. 

There  are  thirteen  different  models  of  houses  included  in  the  group, 
so  that  the  external  architectural  effect  is  not  monotonous.  In  the 
opinion  of  Messrs.  Yilleroy  and  Boch,  double  houses,  with  one  family 
occupying  each  half,  are  preferable  to  other  types  of  construction. 

NORTH  GERMAN  JUTE  SPINNING  AND  WEAVING  FACTORY, 

SCHIFFBEK,  NEAR  HAMBURG. 

This  establishment  (Norddeutsclie  Jute  Spinnerei  und  Weberei)  has 
expended  400,000  marks  ($95,200)  in  building  1GG  workingmen’s  dwell¬ 
ings,  with  school  buildings  and  other  institutions  for  the  benefit  of  the 
workmen  and  their  families.  It  sells  houses  for  an  annual  payment  of 
4  per  cent  for  rent,  2  per  cent  as  a  payment  on  the  principal,  and 
three-fourths  of  1  per  cent  for  expenses.  The  rents  vary  from  2  to  3£ 
marks  (48  to  <^3  cents)  per  week. 

GERMAN  PEOPLE’S  BUILDING  COMPANY,  BERLIN. 

When  a  person  desires  to  acquire  property  from  this  association 
(Deutsche  Yolksbaugesellschaft)  he  must  insure  his  life  in  an  insur¬ 
ance  company  selected  by  the  association,  the  policy  to  mature  at  death 
or  on  the  attainment  of  a  certain  age,  generally  sixty  years.  He  must 
pay  the  premiums  in  advance  for  at  least  two  years,  or  must  belong  to 
some  cooperative  company  in  which  the  shares  are  required  to  be  fully 
paid  up.  This  done,  the  company  buys  a  site  and  builds  a  house  in 
the  style  the  purchaser  selects  from  a  large  variety  of  plans.  The  pur¬ 
chaser,  by  the  contract  of  sale,  at  once  comes  into  full  possession  of 
the  house.  Formal  transfer,  however,  does  not  take  place  until  the 
expiration  of  the  insurance  policy.  Either  at  death  or  at  the  end  of 
the  endowment  period,  the  property  is  turned  over,  free  from  debt  or 
mortgage,  since  the  insurance  company  pays  the  whole  amount  to  the 
association.  If  the  head  of  the  family  is  too  old,  or  the  state  of  his 
health  prevents  him  from  obtaining  a  policy,  he  can  substitute  another 
member  of  the  family  to  carry  the  insurance.  Insurance  policies  already 
held  can,  under  certain  conditions,  be  made  use  of  for  this  purpose. 
These  preliminaries  complied  with,  the  purchaser  then  pays  annual 
installments  as  follows: 

1.  The  premium  on  the  amount  insured,  life  as  well  as  fire  insurance, 
the  average  of  which  will  be,  for  a  period  of  about  thirty  years,  3  per 
cent.  If  the  premium  is  paid  in  advance  for  two  years  credit  for  inter¬ 
est  for  the  second  year  will  be  given.  After  the  second  year  the  pre¬ 
miums  diminish  in  amount  in  proportion  to  the  dividend,  generally 
about  15  per  cent  of  the  amount  being  deducted. 

2.  Interest  is  charged  on  the  value  of  the  property  by  the  company 
at  4  per  cent,  making  the  total  annual  cost  to  the  purchaser  7  per  cent. 
The  cost  of  the  medical  examination  is  borne  by  the  company.  The 
purchaser  pays  all  legal  expenses  connected  with  the  acquisition  of  the 


392  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


property,  and  maintenance,  repairs,  and  taxes  upon  it.  Purchasers 
are  also  compelled  to  insure  their  furniture.  As  a  private  owner  will 
not  rent  property  under  7  per  cent,  gross,  of  its  value,  and  as  the  com¬ 
pany,  on  account  of  its  extensive  operations,  is  in  a  position  to  buy 
land  cheaper  and  build  at  less  expense  than  private  individuals,  it  is 
readily  seen  that  the  amount  paid  by  the  acquirer  is,  in  many  cases, 
less  than  he  heretofore  has  paid  for  rent.  The  profits  of  the  company 
consist  of  the  increased  selling  price,  which  is  usually  about  5  per  cent. 

The  organization  is  a  limited  joint  stock  company,  and  in  July,  1892, 
had  a  membership  of  117  stockholders,  holding  513  shares  of  1,000 
marks  ($238)  per  share,  almost  entirely  paid  up.  The  company  was 
founded  in  1891. 

ROYAL  PRUSSIAN  STATE  RAILWAY,  LEINHAUSEN,  HANOVER. 

A  group  of  eighty-six  houses  (Kolonie  Leinhausen)  has  been  built  at 
Leinhausen,  near  Hanover,  for  the  accommodation  of  employees  of  the 
large  railway  shops  which  are  situated  in  that  town.  The  first  dwell¬ 
ing  was  opened  for  habitation  in  1877.  A  census  of  the  population  of 
this  colony  when  it  was  visited  showed  985  inhabitants.  Six-room 
houses  rent  for  165  marks  ($39.27)  annually.  The  land  for  each  build¬ 
ing,  after  it  had  been  sewered  and  improved,  cost  1,050  marks  ($249.90). 
The  building  cost  8,300  marks  ($1,975.40).  There  are  eight  distinct 
types  of  houses  to  suit  different  classes  of  people,  but  only  one  has 
been  chosen  for  description.  It  is  built  of  brick,  on  a  lot  containing 
3,229  square  feet.  The  frontage  of  the  house  is  39  feet  4  inches,  the 
depth  29  feet  6  inches.  About  2,067  square  feet  remain  for  garden  and 
walk.  The  kitchen  is  13  feet  9  inches  by  8  feet  10  inches,  the  living 
room  12  feet  6  inches  by  11  feet  1  inch,  and  the  bedroom  on  the  ground 
floor  13  feet  9  inches  by  8  feet  10  inches.  In  the  upper  story  the  bed¬ 
rooms  are  11  feet  9  inches  by  10  feet  8  inches,  11  feet  9  inches  by  8  feet 
3  inches,  and  18  feet  8  inches  by  8  feet  3  inches,  respectively.  The  hall 
on  the  ground  floor  is  6  feet  7  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches.  There  is  also 
a  corridor  6  feet  7  inches  by  19  feet  3  inches  in  the  attic.  The  house 
is  provided  with  a  cellar  and  outside  privy.  Interior  provisions  are 
somewhat  meager,  there  being  no  cooking  range,  pantry,  or  clothes- 
presses.  Bents  are  payable  monthly  and  are  collected  by  deductions 
from  wages.  In  the  colony  there  are  housed  41  government  officials  ot 
different  grades,  2  teachers,  6  widows  of  former  workmen,  and  148  rail¬ 
way  shop  employees.  These  latter  earn,  on  the  average,  5  marks  ($1.19) 
per  day.  A  cooperative  store  and  savings  bank  with  470  members  have 
been  established. 

PRUSSIAN  STATE  COAL  MINES,  SAARBRUCKEN. 

At  the  coal  mines  belonging  to  the  Prussian  government  (Saarbriicken 
Steinkohlenbergwerke)  at  Saarbriicken  money  has  been  advanced  and 
building  bonuses  offered  workingmen  already  owning  sites  of  ground 


CHAPTER  X. — MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


393 


free  from  incumbrances  and  situated  witliin  a  specified  area  set  aside 
for  the  purpose.  Married  workmen  having  good  records  are  eligible. 
Houses  must  be  built  in  accordance  with  certain  prescribed  regulations. 
As  the  original  building  area  was  absorbed  another  plan  for  assisting 
employees  eligible  in  the  manner  above  stated  was  originated  in  1865. 
Loans  in  amounts  up  to  1,500  marks  ($357)  without  interest  are  ad¬ 
vanced.  At  least  10  per  cent  of  the  loan  must  be  repaid  every  year  by 
monthly  deductions  from  wages  varying  from  3  to  15  marks  (71  cents 
to  $3.57).  The  total  number  of  persons  who  received  building  bonuses 
under  the  first  plan  from  1842  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1890-91  was 
5,264  and  the  total  sum  so  paid  3,787,950  marks  ($901,542.10).  Two 
thousand  nine  hundred  and  forty-four  workmen  up  to  1890-91  had 
profited  by  the  second  scheme,  receiving  advances  equal  to  4,117,050 
marks  ($979,857.90). 

MUNICIPAL  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  DUISBURG. 

In  1889  the  city  corporation  of  Duisburg  constructed  6  six-ro^m 
houses,  each  affording  accommodation  to  two  families.  A  single  tene¬ 
ment  comprises  three  rooms,  in  which  the  kitchen  is  10  feet  9  inches 
by  12  feet  8  inches,  the  living  room  10  feet  9  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches, 
and  the  bedroom  15  feet  4  inches  by  6  feet  9  inches.  There  is  also  a 
corridor  12  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  9  inches,  and  a  staircase  corridor  10 
feet  9  inches  by  6  feet  7  inches.  The  cost  of  the  lot  upon  which  one  of 
these  houses  is  built  was  500  marks  ($119),  and  the  cost  of  the  house 
was  6,262.50  marks  ($1,490.48).  The  houses  are  occupied  by  laborers  in 
municipal  employ,  whose  annual  incomes  vary  from  1,000  to  1,200 
marks  ($238  to  $285.60).  The  sum  charged  for  rent  is  120  marks  ($28.56) 
annually  to  each  family.  The  probable  rent  of  like  lodgings  in  the 
vicinity  would  be  from  150  to  180  marks  ($35.70  to  $42.84).  The 
houses  are  built  of  brick,  and  are  separated  by  fire  walls.  They  con¬ 
tain  cellars  paved  with  bricks.  Each  family  has  a  separate  entrance, 
and  a  privy  situated  outside  the  building.  The  original  cost  of  the 
whole  property,  including  land,  was  37,578.63  marks  ($8,943.71).  The 
annual  return  in  rentals  is  about  4  per  cent  gross.  Eents  are  payable 
fortnightly  and  are  retained  from  the  wages.  Subletting  or  furnishing 
board  to  outsiders  is  not  permitted. 

GERHARD  VOM  RATH  FUND,  COLOGNE.  « 

Buildings  which  are  managed  somewhat  on  the  Peabody  plan  were 
completed  in  Cologne,  Germany,  in  1889.  They  were  built  with  a  leg¬ 
acy  of  450,000  marks  ($107,100),  which  had  been  left  for  the  purpose 
by  Prof.  Dr.  Gerhard  vom  Bath.  The  income  from  this  legacy  is  to  be 
devoted  to  philanthropic  work,  in  which  the  laboring  people  are  to  be 
the  beneficiaries.  Eighty  eight  double  houses,  two  stories  iu  height, 
and  placed  in  groups  of  five,  have  been  buil  t,  all  having  gardens  in  the 
front  and  courts  in  the  rear. 


394  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


DENMARK. 

WORKINGMEN’S  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  COPENHAGEN. 

Tlio  Workingmen’s  Building  Society  ( Arbejdernes  Byggeforening)  wan 
founded,  in  1805,  with  200  members.  Each  member  pays  an  entrance 
fee  of  2  kroner  (54  cents),  and  may  subscribe  for  10  shares  by  paying 
35  iire  (0,4  cents)  weekly  during  ten  years.  Should  he  withdraw  before 
that  time  he  loses  one-third  of  the  sum  paid  in  and  receives  the 
remainder  only  after  six  months  have  lapsed.  Removal  being  satisfac¬ 
torily  proved,  seven-eighths  of  the  sum  is  refunded,  and  the  whole  sum 
in  case  of  death. 

The  management  is  confided  to  a  committee  of  seven,  elected  at  the 
general  meeting.  Disputes  are  settled  by  arbitration.  The  committee 
makes  all  appointments  of  officials  necessary  to  conduct  the  business, 
such  as  architects,  legal  advisers,  cashiers,  and  other  assistants.  IJ  nder 
those  regulations  the  society  has  become  extremely  popular,  and  now 
numbers  between  10, 000  and  17,000  members.  There  is  a  relief  fund, 
which  is  made  up  from  extraordinary  receipts  and  from  donations  and 
which  is  used  for  giving  loans  to  owners  of  houses,  particularly  to 
widows,  who  are  suffering  temporary  financial  embarrassment. 

During  the  twenty-five  years  preceding  1891,  831  houses  were  com¬ 
pleted,  at  a  cost  of  0,192,031  kroner  ($1,659,625.11).  In  1891, 22  houses 
were  in  course  of  construction,  372  houses  had  been  turned  over  to 
members,  and  140  were  entirely  paid  for.  The  total  population  housed 
by  the  society  approximates  7,000. 

The  houses  erected  are  of  two  stories  and  attic,  and  accommodate  one 
or  two  families.  They  are  disposed  of  by  lot  among  members  who  have 
belonged  to  the  society  at  least  six  months  and  have  paid  in  20  kroner 
($5.30).  The  winner  may  within  a  certain  time  transfer  the  house  to 
another,  who  assumes  all  privileges  and  obligations.  The  purchaser  pays 
6A  per  cent  of  the  purchase  money  per  annum  as  installments,  besides 
interest  monthly,  which  is  calculated  at  4  i>or  cent.  After  ten  years  a 
deed  of  conveyance  is  passed,  and  the  occupant  becomes  the  absolute 
owner,  with  the  restriction  that  the  character  of  the  house  is  not  to  bo 
altered  for  ninety  years. 

Accounts  of  the  society  are  settled  annually.  After  10  per  cent  has 
been  set  aside  for  the  reserve  fund  the  remainder  is  divided  among  the 
members  of  six  months’  standing  in  proportion  to  every  share  paid  in 
full.  After  the  lapse  of  ten  years  the  sum  indicated  on  the  pass  books 
may  be  drawn,  but  should  the  contributing  member  bo  awarded  a  house 
at  any  drawing  the  sum  indicated  by  his  pass  book  is  deducted  from 
the  price.  Houses  are  sold  at  a  small  advance  on  cost  price.  The  net 
profits  of  the  company  have  boon  about  4  per  cent  annually.  In  1891 
the  share  capital  was  2,375,825.79  kroner  ($636,721.31).  The  prevailing 
type  of  house  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  plan  (plan  No.  76). 


HOUSES  OF  THE  WORKINGMEN'S  BUILDINO  SOOIET/,  COPENHAGEN,  DENMARK, 

Plan  No,  76. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


395 


Tlie  houses  are  of  brick,  with  slate  roofs.  A  thick  party  wall  divides 
each  house  from  the  one  immediately  adjoining.  Each  house  has  a 
cellar  paved  witli  concrete,  with  a  partition  wall  in  the  middle,  so  that 
it  may  be  used  for  two  families.  The  privy  is  situated  outside  at  the 
back  of  the  court.  The  tub  system  is  in  use.  The  kitchen  is  9  feet  10 
inches  by  8  feet,  the  sitting  room  11  feet  8  inches  by  12  feet  4  inches, 
and  the  bedroom  12  feet  4  inches  by  9  feet  9  inches.  The  corridor 
leading  to  the  staircase  is  13  feet  9  inches  by  4  feet  11  inches.  The 
ceilings  are  8  feet  3  inches  high.  The  attic  contains  two  rooms,  one  of 
which  may  be  used  as  a  bedroom.  The  other  room  usually  serves  for 
storage.  These  houses  are  in  great  demand;  the  rent  here  buys  the 
house,  and  it  is  not  at  all  higher  than  that  paid  for  similar  dwellings 
in  other  parts  of  the  city.  A  few  of  the  houses  are  occupied  by  work¬ 
ingmen  in  receipt  of  small  wages,  but  as  a  rule  the  tenants  belong 
to  the  higher  strata  of  working  people.  There  are  also  clerks  and 
some  inferior  grade  public  officials.  The  average  earnings  of  heads  of 
tenant  families  are  estimated  at  about  30  kroner  (88.04)  each  weekly. 

The  occupations  of  those  who  have  acquired  homes  through  the 
Workingmen’s  Building  Society  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

OCCUPATIONS  OF  THOSE  WHO  HAVE  PURCHASED  HOUSES  FROM  THE  WORKING- 
MEN’S  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  COPENHAGEN. 


Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

Num¬ 

ber. 

Occupation. 

N  um¬ 
ber. 

2 

Fish  dealer . . 

1 

Plumber . . .... 

1 

1 

8 

5 

1 

1 

Porters . 

4 

1 

Gardeners . 

4 

Printer . 

1 

] 

Glove  manufacturer . 

1 

Prison  keeper . . 

1 

1 

3 

Private  gentleman . 

1 

2 

Government  employees. . 

2 

Railway  porter . 

1 

4 

6 

Kestaurant  keeper . 

1 

1 

Gun  maker . 

1 

Retired  saloon  keeper  . . . 

1 

3 

1 

Retired  teachers . 

2 

4 

2 

Retired  teamster _ 

1 

1 

Hired  man . 

1 

Sailing  master . 

1 

1 

1 

Sergeants . . . 

5 

31 

3 

Ship  broker..... . 

i 

27 

22 

Ship  builder . . 

1 

1 

1 

Shoemakers . 

9 

1 

Letter  carriers . 

8 

Shoe  manufacturer . 

i 

1 

1 

Skippers . 

3 

1 

3 

Slater . . 

1 

1 

1 

Slipper  makers . 

2 

1 

4 

Steamship  captain . 

1 

3 

3 

Steward  . 

1 

1 

1 

Stucco  worker . 

l 

nip.rks  ” 

7 

2 

Students . 

2 

2 

7 

Superintendents . 

4 

i 

28 

Superintendent  of  baths. 

1 

1 

1 

Switchman . 

1 

2 

2 

Tailors . 

7 

2 

1 

Teachers . 

3 

3 

8 

Telegraph  operators . 

2 

1 

21 

Tinsmiths . 

2 

3 

7 

Translator . . 

1 

l‘ 

1 

Wagon  maker . 

1 

2 

12 

Waiters . 

2 

3 

Navy-yard  employee . 

1 

Watchmakers . 

2 

1 

Outrider . 

1 

Wholesale  merchants. . . . 

3 

10 

2 

Wine  dealers . 

2 

1 

Painters . 

8 

Wood  carver . 

1 

1 

Physicians . 

2 

Wood  turner . 

1 

1 

Piano  maker. ..... ....... 

1 

Not  specified  (spinsters) . 

15 

Firemen . 

4 

Piano  tuners . 

2 

Not  specified  (widows) .. 

29 

396  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


The  Workingmen’s  Building  Society  of  Copenhagen  has  rendered 
very  important  service.  Its  influence  has  been  widely  felt,  and  it  has 
not  only  furnished  healthy  homes  on  a  commercial  basis,  but  it  has  also 
been  able  to  construct  such  buildings  with  a  more  than  ordinary  degree 
of  attention  to  architectural  beauty.  More  than  half  of  the  houses 
have  been  built  between  a  wide  street  and  the  lakes  which  form  the 
boundary  of  the  city  on  its  northern  side. 

MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  DENMARK,  COPENHAGEN. 

After  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1853  there  remained  at  Copenhagen, 
from  subscriptions  to  aid  the  distressed  and  needy,  an  unexpended 
balance  of  80,000  kroner  ($21,440).  The  Medical  Association  of  Den¬ 
mark,  which  was  founded  about  that  time,  in  conjunction  with  the  then 
existing  central  committee,  took  that  sum  as  a  nucleus,  and  proceeded 
to  erect  healthy  and  cheap  dwellings  for  the  lower  classes,  conveniently 
located  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  The  municipality  of  Copenhagen 
and  the  minister  of  war  sold  for  this  purpose  an  open  space  of  39,400 
square  meters  (424,100  square  feet)  at  a  very  low  rate.  The  work  of 
this  association  has  proceeded  until  the  population  housed  in  1891 
amounted  to  2,505.  There  are  360  one-room,  324  two-room,  and  48  three- 
room  tenements  provided.  The  annual  rental  for  the  first  class  varies 
from  62.40  to  114  kroner  ($16.72  to  $30.55) ;  for  the  second  class,  from  102 
to  150  kroner  ($27.34  to  $40.20) ;  for  the  third  class,  from  150  to  174  kroner 
($40.20  to  $46.63).  Plans  of  one  of  the  groups  of  houses,  together  with 
the  details  of  construction,  are  shown  (plans  Nos.  77  A  and  77  B). 

The  houses  are  two  stories  high  and  are  constructed  of  brick.  The 
medical  association  has  no  commercial  object  in  view.  The  proceeds 
from  the  rentals  over  and  above  what  is  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
property  in  good  repair  and  to  x>ay  all  taxes  and  necessary  expenses 
are  allowed  to  accumulate  so  that  the  work  of  model  housing  may  be 
perpetuated. 

HOLLAND. 

VAN  MARKEN  MODEL  DWELLINGS,  DELFT. 

Mr.  van  Marken,  director  of  the  distillery  and  yeast  works  at  Delft, 
Holland,  desirous  of  providing  homes  for  his  employees,  bought  a  tract 
of  land  containing  9J  acres,  which  he  laid  out  in  the  form  of  an  English 
park.  Here  were  built  80  houses.  The  proprietor,  while  not  wishing 
to  interfere  with  the  mobility  of  labor  and  bind  people  to  their  homes 
by  selling  separate  houses  to  tenants,  and  desirous  of  avoiding  complica¬ 
tions  in  case  of  death  when  the  only  possession  left  to  the  family  was  a 
house  partly  paid  for,  yet  desiring  to  give  all  the  benefits  of  ownership, 
devised  a  new  plan  for  disposing  of  the  houses.  He  formed  a  coop¬ 
erative  company  with  a  capital  of  160,000  gulden  ($64,320),  to  which 
he  subscribed  32,000  gulden  ($12,864),  or  one-fifth  of  the  whole.  The 
remainder  of  the  money  needed  was  borrowed  from  his  friends  at  4£  per 
cent  interest  upon  a  mortgage  on  the  property.  At  first  Mr.  van  Marken 


GROUP  OF  HOUSES  OF  THE  MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  DENMARK,  COPENHAGEN,  DENMARK. 

Plan  No.  77  a. 


HOUSES  OF  THE  MEDICAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  DENMARK,  COPENHAGEN,  DENMARK. 

Plan  No.  77  b. 


CHAPTER  X. - MODEL  SMALL  HOUSES. 


397 


was  the  only  stockholder,  the  remaining  four-fifths  of  the  shares  being 
unsold,  but  as  the  houses  were  rented  at  a  figure  equal  to  per  cent 
of  their  total  cost,  and  as  this  amount  was  greater  than  interest,  taxes, 
management,  contribution  to  reserve  fund,  and  other  expenses,  the  sur¬ 
plus  was  credited  to  the  tenants,  who  in  this  way  in  time  became  share¬ 
holders  of  the  company.  Before  obtaining  the  full  ownership  of  shares 
of  stock  they  received  credit  for  3  per  cent  interest  on  the  money  so 
saved.  In  the  course  of  time  the  tenants  will  in  this  way  come  into 
possession  of  four-fifths  of  all  the  shares  of  stock. 

SWEDEN. 

GOTHENBURG  SAVINGS  BANK,  GOTHENBURG. 

The  Gothenburg  Savings  Bank  devotes  a  part  of  its  income  to  the 
construction  of  workingmen’s  dwellings.  Operations  were  commenced 
in  1869,  when  the  directors  voted  to  set  aside  an  annual  sum  of  not  less 
than  5,400  kroner  ($1,447.20)  for  this  purpose.  Dividends  are  limited 
to  4  per  cent.  When  the  house  is  purchased  by  the  occupant — a  feature 
which  is  encouraged — the  plan  adopted  by  the  W  <rkingmen’s  Building 
Society  of  Gothenburg  is  followed.  The  first  g  ip  of  houses  erected 
cost  3,700  kroner  ($991.60)  each,  and  when  purchased  required  an  origi¬ 
nal  payment  of  300  kroner  ($80.40)  and  a  monthly  rental  of  23  kro¬ 
ner  ($6.16).  The  second  group  of  houses  erected  cost  8,700  kroner 
($2,331.60)  each,  and  when  purchased  required  an  original  payment  of 
400  kroner  ($107.20)  and  a  monthly  rental  of  52  kroner  ($13.94),  based 
on  a  purchase  in  twenty  years’  time.  Six  of  these  houses  have  alre.idy 
been  acquired  by  workingmen.  The  houses  of  the  first  group  built  are 
of  red  brick,  and  are  said  to  be  among  the  prettiest  small  habitations 
in  the  city.  More  recently  the  savings  bank,  instead  of  continuing  its 
original  operations,  has  purchased  shares  of  the  Workingmen’s  Build¬ 
ing  Society  and  cooperates  with  it  in  its  various  enterprises. 

WORKINGMEN’S  BUILDING  SOCIETY,  GOTHENBURG. 

The  Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  which  came  into  existence  in 
1872,  was  modeled  after  a  Copenhagen  institution.  The  society  pur¬ 
chased  80,436  square  feet  of  land,  and  houses  consisting  of  a  ground 
story  of  brick  and  two  stories  of  wood  were  erected  thereon.  The 
houses  are  all  of  the  same  style,  and  have  wooden  stairways.  Each 
house  contains  three  tenements.  In  the  attic  there  are  closets  for  each 
tenement  and  a  drying  loft.  The  rooms  are  usually  14  feet  9  inches 
by  13  feet  9  inches  and  8  feet  6  inches  high.  In  1890,  out  of  24  of  the 
society’s  houses,  21  had  been  fully  paid  for  by  occupants.  The  monthly 
rent  charged  is  11  kroner  ($2.95)  for  one  room,  15  kroner  ($4.02)  for  one 
room  and  kitchen,  and  25  kroner  ($6.70)  for  two  rooms  and  kitchen. 
The  purchaser  usually  occupies  one  of  the  tenements  and  lets  the  others. 
In  1890,  674  persons  were  housed  in  these  buildings.  At  the  outset 
a  dividend  of  5  per  cent  was  paid  annually,  but  in  1889  and  1890  this 
was  increased  to  6£  per  cent. 


398  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


GOTHENBURG  COMPANY  FOR  THE  HOUSING  OF  WORKING 

PEOPLE,  GOTHENBURG. 

The  Gothenburg  Company  for  the  Housing  of  Working  People  was 
organized  in  1873,  and  opened  its  first  houses  in  1875.  In  1892  the  total 
population  housed  was  nearly  2,000.  Most  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  and 
of  two  stories,  with  attics  and  cellars.  They  are  built  for  three  families. 
The  »ental  of  a  single  room  is  10  kroner  ($2.68)  per  month;  of  one  room 
and  kitchen,  15  kroner  ($4.02)  per  month;  of  two  rooms  and  kitchen,  20 
kroner  to  25  kroner  ($5.36  to  $6.70)  per  month.  Tenants  are  encouraged 
to  become  proprietors.  The  sum  of  400  kroner  ($170.20)  is  paid  down 
at  tlie  time  of  taking  possession,  and  the  balance  in  monthly  install¬ 
ments,  varying  from  52  kroner  to  90  kroner  ($13.94  to  $24.12),  during  a 
period  not  to  exceed  twenty  years.  The  purchaser  occupies  one  tene¬ 
ment  himself  and  rents  the  others.  In  this  way  he  is  easily  able  to  pay 
for  his  property  in  about  half  the  time  prescribed.  The  purchaser  is 
not  permitted  to  erect  additional  buildings  on  the  lot  or  to  make  any 
changes  in  the  house,  except  by  special  permission.  He  must  himself 
occupy  a  tenement  in  the  house  until  it  is  paid  for.  The  sale  of  liquor 
is  not  permitted  on  the  premises. 

From  1873  to  1878  the  company  paid  a  dividend  of  4  per  cent;  in  1879 
and  1880,  4^  per  cent;  in  1888,  5  per  cent,  the  maximum  allowed. 

D.  CARNEGIE  AND  COMPANY,  GOTHENBURG. 

In  1850  D.  Carnegie  and  Company  built  3  tenement  houses,  furnishing 
accommodation  for  about  30  families.  A  laundry  and  bakery  for  com¬ 
mon  use,  situated  in  the  courtyard,  were  provided.  The  monthly  rent  of 
a  tenement  was  fixed  at  7.25  kroner  ($1.94.)  In  1859  the  company 
erected  houses  containing  49  tenements,  most  of  them  consisting  of  one 
room  and  kitchen  each.  The  rent  for  these  was  fixed  at  6  kroner  ($1.61) 
per  month  for  accommodation  in  the  attic,  and  from  7.25  kroner  to  7.50 
kroner  ($1.94  to  $2.01)  in  the  first  and  second  stories.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  group  of  houses  belonging  to  the  company  was  erected  from  1881 
to  1886.  The  cost  of  these  buildings  was  307,000  kroner  ($82,276). 
Each  house  is  two  stories  in  height  and  is  built  of  red  brick.  There 
are  26  in  all,  furnishing  117  tenements,  of  which  8  are  intended  for 
single  persons.  There  is  a  bakehouse  and  laundry  for  every  four  fami¬ 
lies.  The  privies  are  situated  in  the  yard.  The  cellars  have  asphalt 
floors,  and  the  stairways  are  of  stone.  The  company  receives  a  divi¬ 
dend  on  this  investment  of  less  than  3  per  cent.  The  houses  are  much 
sought  after  by  the  workmen,  who  regard  the  privilege  of  living  in 
them  as  a  sort  of  reward. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


CHAPTER  XT. 

MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


Model  lodging  houses  fill  an  important  sphere  in  the  housing  of 
working  people.  A  conspicuous  service  rendered  by  them  consists  in 
securing  a  reduction  of  overcrowding.  Dr.  James  B.  Russell,  medical 
officer  of  health  for  Glasgow,  furnishes  incontrovertible  testimony  on 
this  point.  In  1872  the  percentage  of  “  ticketed  houses  ”  in  Glasgow  in 
which  strange  lodgers  were  found  was  71;  in  1888  it  was  29.  In  1871 
23  per  cent  of  all  the  families  of  the  city  took  lodgers.  Of  these 
families  with  lodgers,  20  per  cent  were  dwellers  in  one  room  and  48 
per  cent  dwellers  in  two-room  tenements.  “It  has  fallen,”  says  he, 
“pari  passu,  with  the  increase  of  these  lodging  houses.”  The  question 
of  overcrowding  is  probably  the  most  difficult  of  all  for  public  author¬ 
ities  to  deal  with.  It  is  productive,  too,  of  the  greatest  evils,  hygienic 
and  moral.  Municipalities  abroad  may,  therefore,  have  acted  wisely 
in  opening  model  lodging  houses  and  conducting  them  with  financial 
success,  thereby  setting  an  example  which  private  enterprise  has  not 
been  slow  to  follow,  and,  as  the  experience  of  Glasgow  shows,  to  even 
greater  advantage.  Opponents  of  state  intervention  even  see  some 
sort  of  justification  for  municipalities  doing  indirectly  through  lodging 
houses  what  can  not  be  effected  by  direct  means. 

Outside  of  Great  Britain  very  little  attention  seems  as  yet  to  have 
been  given  to  the  provision  of  model  lodging  houses.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  few  institutions  which  deserve  the  name.  The  lodging 
house  business  in  America  has  been  left  entirely  to  private  enterprise. 
Special  regulations  and  extra  precautions,  which  sanitary  authorities 
in  some  of  our  large  cities  have  felt  obliged  to  make,  furnish  the  most 
convincing  proof  that  the  standard  of  accommodation  has  not  been 
very  high.  The  common  dormitory  has  not  yet  been  replaced  by  the 
cubicle  system,  and  disciplinary  regulations  leave  much  to  be  desired. 
The  very  name  of  lodging  house  in  many  places  has  come  to  have  a 
bad  odor  about  it. 

BALTIMORE,  MARYLAND. 

The  most  conspicuous,  if  not  the  only  lodging  house  that  can  bear 
comparison  with  those  found  in  Great  Britain,  is  that  recently  opened 
in  Baltimore  by  the  well  known  philanthropist,  Mr.  Eugene  Levering. 
It  is  in  reality  a  workingman’s  residential  club,  where  isolated  sleep¬ 
ing  apartments  may  be  hired  by  the  night  or  by  the  week.  Meals  are 
H.  Ex.  354 - 26  401 


! 

402  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

procurable  at  moderate  prices.  There  are  also  excellent  bath  accom¬ 
modations  and  smoking,  reading,  and  game  rooms.  Workingmen  have 
thus  most  of  the  conveniences  and  accessories  of  a  gentleman’s  ordinary 
club.  Provision  has  been  made  for  eighty  lodgers  nightly,  and  the 
prices  charged  for  lodging  are  from  15  cents  to  30  cents  per  night,  or 
75  cents  to  $1.25  by  the  week.  The  institution  has  been  open  only  a 
little  more  than  a  year;  hence  it  is  too  early  to  judge  of  financial  possi¬ 
bilities.  Mr.  Levering,  in  embarking  on  the  enterprise,  calculated  upon 
a  commercial  return  on  his  investment,  and  unless  the  experience  of 
all  similar  enterprises  abroad  should  be  reversed  he  will  get  it.  The 
patronage  accorded  from  the  outset  has  been  sufficient  to  pay  running 
expenses,  but  as  yet  the  place  has  not  become  well  known.  The  value 
of  institutions  of  this  sort  is  very  great,  whether  regarded  from  the 
sanitary  or  moral  point  of  view,  and  their  provision  is  a  work  of  great 
public  utility. 

ENGLISH  LEGISLATION. 

The  original  idea  upon  which  the  Glasgow  lodging  nouses  were 
founded  was  that  they  might  become  useful  in  solving  difficulties  attend¬ 
ing  the  accommodation  of  a  large  floating  population.  This  element 
includes  two  classes.  There  is  the  honest  workingman  searching  for 
work  and  without  resources,  in  the  meantime  confronted  with  the 
choice  between  begging  and  starvation.  For  this  class  charitable 
agencies  can  best  provide,  opening  friendly  inns  where  accommodation 
for  a  limited  period  may  be  furnished  to  all  applicants  who  are  willing 
to  work  for  it.  Tramps,  professional  mendicants  not  belonging  to  any 
family,  criminals,  the  shiftless,  and  the  idle  constitute  the  second  class. 
They  have  no  desire  or  intention  to  work  for  their  accommodation,  and 
by  some  means  or  other  always  find  money  to  pay  for  it.  Harboring 
this  class  in  families  speedily  brings  moral  decadence  to  households 
and  neighborhoods.  It  would  be  far  better  if  they  could  be  corralled 
in  municipal  lodging  houses,  where  the  influences  of  better  surround¬ 
ings  and  unbending  discipline  might  reform  a  few  and  prevent  others 
from  continuing  the  mischief  they  now  perpetrate.  Municipal  model 
lodging  houses  would  naturally  be  the  refuge  for  a  large  element  in  the 
wayfaring  population,  and  hence  they  may  be  made  of  special  use  as  a 
disciplinary  agency  to  the  unworthy  elements  among  a  city’s  inhabi¬ 
tants.  Young  men  and  women  not  members  of  local  families,  or  those 
traveling  in  search  of  work  and  provided  with  funds,  and  all  laborers 
of  the  casual  class  can  best  be  accommodated  in  model  lodging  houses 
erected  by  private  enterprise,  somewhat  on  the  pattern  of  the  Balti¬ 
more  residential  club,  opened  by  Mr.  Levering,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made.  Congestion  in  tenement  house  quarters  would  thus 
be  greatly  relieved,  and  hygienic  and  moral  improvement  would  follow. 

Lodging  houses,  unless  strictly  supervised,  are  a  menace  to  health 
and  morals.  The  history  of  epidemics  shows  not  only  a  high  mortality 


CHAPTER  XI. — MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


403 


among  habitues  of  lodging  houses,  but,  also,  that  such  places  may  be¬ 
come  foci  of  infection  radiating  to  localities  whither  clients  wander.  It 
was  this  danger  which  aroused  English  authorities  to  provide,  first, 
adequate  inspection,  and  then  stringent  regulation.  Lodging  houses 
were  at  first  registered  and  placed  under  police  supervision;  then  munic¬ 
ipalities  were  led  into  conducting  them,  and  finally  private  enterprise 
has  taken  up  the  work  with  conspicuous  success. 

The  English  public  health  act  of  1875  requires  that  all  local  sanitary 
authorities  shall  keep  registers  of  common  lodging  houses  situated 
within  their  districts,  of  the  number  of  lodgers,  and  of  the  names  and 
residences  of  the  keepers.  Previous  to  registration  a  house  has  to  be 
inspected  and  approved  by  a  competent  sanitary  official.  A  certificate 
of  character  is  also  required  from  the  keeper,  and  a  sign  stating  the 
nature  of  the  premises,  for  example,  “  Registered  Common  Lodging 
House,”  must  be  conspicuously  affixed  on  the  outside  of  the  building. 
The  local  sanitary  authorities  are  empowered  to  make  by-laws — 

1.  Fixing  the  number  of  lodgers  and  providing  for  the  separation  of 
the  sexes. 

2.  For  promoting  cleanliness  and  ventilation. 

3.  For  giving  notices  and  taking  precautions  in  case  of  infectious  dis¬ 
eases  breaking  out. 

4.  For  making  general  regulations  for  the  houses. 

Walls  and  ceilings  of  common  lodging  houses  must  be  lime  washed 
twice  a  year,  under  a  penalty  of  £2  ($9.73)  for  neglect.  Keepers  must 
report  beggars  or  vagrants,  if  required  to  do  so  by  the  local  author! 
ties.  Free  access  may  be  had  at  all  times  to  the  houses  by  any  officer 
of  the  local  authorities.  A  penalty  of  £5  ($24.33)  is  levied  upon  the 
keeper  of  a  common  lodging  house  for  receiving  lodgers  without  regis¬ 
tering  them,  for  failure  to  make  report  upon  the  proper  schedules  of 
persons  resorting  to  the  house  after  having  been  required  to  do  so,  and 
for  neglect  to  give  notice  of  infectious  diseases. 

The  local  government  board  has  prepared  a  series  of  rules  for  the 
use  of  sanitary  authorities  in  dealing  with  common  lodging  houses. 
These  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  such  institutions  may  not  be  reg¬ 
istered  until  they  have  been  inspected  and  approved  by  competent  offi¬ 
cials.  Much  importance,  therefore,  is  attached  to  the  thoroughness  of 
this  inspection.  During  its  progress  all  details  affecting  in  any  way 
the  fitness  of  the  premises  should  be  carefully  ascertained.  The  houses 
should  possess  all  of  the  conditions  of  wholesomeness  requisite  for 
dwelling  houses,  and  their  arrangement  should  be  specially  designed 
for  receiving  and  caring  for  a  specific  number  of  lodgers.  Dry  founda¬ 
tions,  proper  drainage,  guttering,  and  substantial  paving  to  any  abut¬ 
ting  area  or  yard  are  especially  enjoined.  Trapping  and  ventilation 
of  sewers  and  water-closets  must  be  adequate.  All  waste  pipes,  from 
sinks,  cisterns,  etc.,  should  discharge  in  the  open  air  over  gullies  out¬ 
ride  of  the  house.  Efficient  ventilation  of  soil  pipes,  proper  disposi- 


404  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

tion  and  construction  of  closets,  privies,  refuse  receptacles,  etc.,  are 
matters  of  solicitude. 

The  water  supply  must  be  of  good  quality.  Walls,  roofs,  and  floors 
are  to  be  kept  in  good  repair.  No  papering  is  permitted  for  inside 
walls.  Proper  windows  and  the  disposition  of  rooms  and  staircases,  so 
that  complete  ventilation  may  be  insured,  are  also  required.  Eooms 
without  chimneys  are  to  be  furnished  with  special  ventilating  shafts. 
Three  hundred  cubic  feet  of  air  space  is  fixed  as  the  standard  for  each 
individual.  Kitchens  and  day  room  accommodations  are  required  to 
be  separate  from  the  bedrooms.  A  daily  water  supply  of  ten  gallons 
per  each  registered  inmate  is  recommended  where  there  are  water- 
closets  and  half  that  amount  where  the  closets  are  dry.  One  closet 
or  privy  is  required  for  every  twenty  registered  lodgers.  Washing 
accommodation  outside  of  bedrooms  is  recommended. 

Specific  regulations  for  the  administration  of  common  lodging  houses 
are  set  forth  in  great  detail  in  the  model  by-laws  of  the  local  govern¬ 
ment  board.  This  department  is  also  permitted  by  the  act  of  1875  to 
make  by-laws  where  it  thinks  fit  in  relation  to  houses  let  in  lodgings. 
These  by-laws  provide  for  limiting  the  number  of  persons  who  may 
occupy  these  lodgings,  for  separating  the  sexes,  for  registering  and 
inspecting  such  houses,  and  for  enforcing  proper  drainage,  ventilation, 
cleansing,  paving  of  the  courtyards,  and  notification  in  case  of  infec¬ 
tious  diseases.  The  requirements  are,  to  a  great  degree,  similar  to 
those  just  mentioned  in  reference  to  common  lodging  houses.  Families 
instead  of  single  individuals  are  more  often  the  lodgers  in  this  class  of 
dwellings. 

MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSES,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 

The  city  of  Glasgow  took  the  initiative  in  providing  model  lodging 
houses.  When  the  Improvement  Trust  commenced  operations  on 
expropriated  areas  they  found  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  dispos¬ 
sessed  people  were  lodgers.  Investigation  proved  that  this  class  of 
inhabitants  was  found  in  14  per  cent  of  the  one-room  dwellings,  27  per 
cent  of  the  two-room  dwellings,  and  32  per  cent  of  the  three-room  dwell¬ 
ings  of  the  city.  To  turn  these  loose  simply  meant  that  they  would 
go  to  other  quarters  and  there  perpetuate  the  very  evils  which  had 
brought  about  expropriation.  There  was  danger,  too,  that  the  existing 
common  lodging  houses  would  be  so  congested  as  to  produce  baleful 
consequences.  These  considerations,  together  with  the  fact  that  the 
terms  of  the  trust  permitted  taking  care  of  displaced  people,  and 
also  that  the  lodging  house  business  was  known  to  be  an  exceedingly 
profitable  one,  led  the  trustees  to  build  their  first  model  lodging 
house,  which  was  completed  February  6,  1871.  The  work  was  con¬ 
tinued  during  eight  years,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  six 
model  lodging  houses  for  men,  with  1,967  beds,  and  one  for  women,  ;■ 
with  125  beds,  at  a  total  net  cost,  on  May  31,  1891,  of  £84,479  15s,  7<h 
($411,120.85). 


CLYDE  STREET  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSE,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 
Plan  No.  78  a. 


CLYDE  STREET  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSE,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 


CLYDE  STREET  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSE,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


405 


The  following  table  presents  the  details  of  cost: 


COST  OF  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSES,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 


Original  cost  of— 

0 

Lodging  house. 

Site. 

Building. 

Bedding 
and  other 
furnish- 

Total. 

Date  of  com¬ 
pletion. 

Num¬ 
ber  of 
beds. 

Cost 

per 

bed. 

ings. 

Drygat©  house  (males) . . . 
East  Russell  street  house 

$7, 409. 24 

$41, 641. 71 

$4,047.00 

$53, 097. 95 

Feb.  6, 1871 

287 

$185. 01 

(females) . 

4,  686. 44 

12  421. 92 

1, 087. 95 

18, 196.  31 

Mar.  13,1871 

125 

145. 57 

Greendyke  street  house 

(males) . . . 

10,  800. 45 

38, 675.  74 

4, 355. 25 

53, 831.44 

Nov.,  1876 

284 

207.  52 

Portugal  street  house 

(males) . . 

19, 660.  66 

54,  972. 92 

3, 189.42 

77,  823. 00 

Oct. ,  1878 

343 

Clyde  street  (Calton) 
house  (males) . 

12, 000.  91 

56, 623. 09 

3,  325. 26 

71,  949.  26 

Jan.,  1879 

350 

North  Woodside  road 

house  (males) . 

17, 178.  77 

58, 394. 67 

3, 148. 34 

78,  721. 78 

Apr. ,  1879 

350 

243. 51 

Hydepark  street  house 
(males)... . . . 

21,  776. 15 

48,  232.  65 

3, 136.  32 

73, 145. 12 

Aug.,  1879 

353 

237. 18 

Total . 

93, 512. 62 

310, 962. 70 

22,  289. 54 

426, 764. 86 

2, 092 

Capitalized  value  of  feu 
duty,  unredeemed : 

Drygate,  East  Russell 

street,  and  Greendyke 
street  houses . 

5, 101. 71 

5, 101.71 

Portugal  street,  Clyde 

street,  and  North 
Woodside  road  houses. 

6, 509. 96 
10, 584.  64 

6,  509. 96 
10,  584.  64 

Hydepark  street  house.. 

Total . 

22, 196. 31 

22, 196.  31 

Grand  total . 

115, 708. 93 

310, 962. 70 

22, 289. 54 

448,  961. 17 

Deduct  allowance  from 

revenue  for  deprecia¬ 
tion  . 

37, 840. 32 

Net  cost,  May  31,  1891... 

411, 120. 85 

The  arrangements  are  such  that  each  lodger  has  a  private  compart¬ 
ment  with  400  cubic  feet  of  air  space.  The  cubicle  system  has  been 
chosen — a  lodger  in  one  compartment  being  situated  immediately  over 
his  neighbor  in  the  other,  though  entirely  separated  from  him.  There 
are  such  conveniences  as  reading  rooms,  dining  rooms,  baths,  and 
facilities  for  cooking  and  washing.  It  is  customary  for  lodgers  to  cook 
their  own  meals. 

Further  description  of  the  accommodations  is  not  necessary,  since  the 
accompanying  plans  (plans  Nos.  78  A,  78  B,  78  C,  and  78  D)  show  the 
elevation  and  all  interior  dispositions  of  one  of  these  buildings. 

Some  surprise  may  be  expressed  at  the  disparity  of  accommodations 
furnished  for  males  and  for  females.  It  is  well  to  remember,  however, 
that  the  nomadic  element  among  the  latter  sex  is  small  in  comparison 
with  the  former.  Furthermore,  very  great  difficulties  have  been  expe¬ 
rienced  in  managing  the  lodging  houses  for  females.  The  woman  who 
divorces  herself  from  home  life  becomes  more  nearly  a  social  incorrigible 
than  most  men  similarly  situated. 

The  price  of  lodging  in  the  municipal  model  lodging  houses  is  3d. 
and  3£d.  (6  cents  and  7  cents)  per  night  for  women  and  3£d.  to  4£d. 
(7  cents  to  9  cents)  per  night  for  men.  Financial  results  have  been 
thoroughly  satisfactory.  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  May  31, 1893,  the 


406  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


returns  from  the  seven  lodging  houses  netted  the  city  of  Glasgow  5.35 
per  cent  upon  the  original  cost.  Up  to  the  same  date  10 \  per  cent  of 
this  original  cost  had  been  provided  for  by  a  depreciation  fund,  for 
which  a  certain  amount  annually  had  been  put  aside. 

The  following  is  the  number  of  lodgings  furnished  by  the  various 
lodging  houses  during  the  year  ending  May  31, 1893: 


Drygate  lodging  house . .  103,  323 

Greendyke  street  lodging  house .  101,  259 

Portugal  street  lodging  house .  124, 508 

Clyde  street  lodging  house .  125, 531 

North  Woodside  road  lodging  house .  124,  394 

Hydepark  street  lodging  house .  123,887 

East  Russell  street  lodging  house  (female) .  45, 392 


Total .  748,294 


The  following  table  shows  the  price  of  nightly  lodging  and  the  num¬ 
ber  of  lodgers  at  each  price  for  the  same  period: 


Number  of  male  lodgers: 

At  7  cents . 

At  8  cents . 

At  9  cents . 

Number  of  female  lodgers: 

At  6  cents . 

At  7  cents . 


498, 150 
16, 786 
187, 966 

36, 004 
9,388 


The  financial  success  of  these  enterprises  has  tempted  private  parties 
to  enter  the  business.  Lodging  house  keeping  has  thus  been  thoroughly 
reformed.  In  1890  in  Glasgow  there  were  registered  accommodations  for 
7,230  sleepers,  about  three-fourths  of  which  were  in  model  lodging 
houses  belonging  to  the  city  and  to  a  single  private  owner.  The  moral 
and  social  advancement  which  has  followed  improvement  in  lodging 
house  accommodations  in  Glasgow  can  not  be  expressed  in  figures. 
The  presence  of  lodgers  in  the  restricted  homes  of  the  poor  is  a  stand¬ 
ing  menace  to  domestic  happiness  and  a  temptation  to  immoral  conduct. 
Especially  are  these  consequences  magnified  when  the  lodger  is  admitted 
to  share  with  man  and  wife,  adult  sons  or  daughters,  and  young  chil¬ 
dren  the  occupancy  of  a  single  room. 

The  gain  to  public  health  has  been  very  great.  During  the  whole 
period  of  time  in  which  the  municipality’s  model  lodging  houses  have 
been  in  operation  they  have  been  almost  completely  free  from  infectious 
diseases.  Only  in  one  instance  did  a  succession  of  cases  arise,  that 
when  smallpox  became  established  in  one  of  the  buildings.  Prevent¬ 
ive  measures  of  greater  thoroughness  than  could  have  been  used  in 
private  lodging  houses  were  at  once  adopted,  and  the  disease  was 
speedily  stamped  out.  Overcrowding  has  been  greatly  diminished.  The 
inspections  of  “ ticketed  houses” have  revealed  this  fact.  The  general 
social  effects  of  ministering  to  the  needs  of  the  poor  in  this  way  have 
been  very  satisfactory. 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


407 


The  Glasgow  Improvement  Trust  (which  is  the  mayor  and  corpora¬ 
tion  especially  empowered  for  the  purposes  of  the  Glasgow  improve¬ 
ments  act,  1866)  have  decided  to  move  one  step  further  in  advance. 
They  are  about  to  try  the  experiment  of  erecting  what  is  to  be  called  a 
family  home,  to  serve  as  a  boarding  house  for  poor  widows  with  chil¬ 
dren.  There  will  be  play  places,  besides  common  cooking  and  washing 
conveniences,  very  much  as  in  model  lodging  houses. 

The  following  minutes  from  the  meeting  of  the  special  subcommittee, 
held  June  22, 1893,  set  forth  the  intentions  of  the  council : 

The  special  subcommittee  resumed  consideration  of  the  proposal  to 
utilize  the  vacant  steading  of  ground  belonging  to  the  trustees  on  the 
north  side  of  Saint  Andrew’s  street,  containing  about  2,000  square 
yards,  by  the  erection  thereon  of  a  building  to  be  used  as  a  family  home. 
The  special  subcommittee  had  also  again  before  them  the  plans,  pre¬ 
pared  by  the  city  engineer,  of  the  building  which  it  is  proposed  should 
be  erected  upon  the  ground  in  question.  The  value  of  the  site,  as  esti¬ 
mated  by  the  city  engineer,  is  £6,000  ($29,199),  which,  at  5  per  cent, 
would  represent  an  annual  rent  or  feu  duty  of  £300  ($1,459.95),  and  the 
probable  cost  of  the  proposed  building,  exclusive  of  furnishings,  is 
estimated  at  £12,000  ($58,398),  which,  taken  at  3  per  cent,  would  repre¬ 
sent  a  liability  of  £360  ($1,751.94)  per  annum.  The  proposed  home 
will  contain  176  dormitories,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  annual  reve¬ 
nue  will  amount  to  £2,000  ($9,733)  per  annum,  while  the  expenditure 
for  the  upkeep  and  management  of  the  home  (exclusive  of  the  £300 
($1,459.95)  and  the  £360  ($1,751.94)  above  referred  to)  is  estimated  at 
£1,040  ($5,061.16)  per  annum.  The  special  subcommittee,  having  care¬ 
fully  considered  the  whole  matter  and  the  plans  now  submitted  to  them, 
agreed  to  recommend  that  the  plans  be  approved  and  that  the  trustees 
should  proceed  with  the  erection  of  the  proposed  building  in  conformity 
therewith. 

The  basis  of  the  calculated  financial  result  is  a  charge  of  8d.  (16  cents) 
per  night.  This  home  is  intended  only  for  widows  having  children  and 
earning  from  12s.  to  15s.  ($2.92  to  $3.65)  per  week.  In  addition  to  the 
8d.  (16  cents)  charged  nightly  for  lodging,  a  sum  of  Is.  6d.  (37  cents)  per 
week  will  be  exacted  for  feeding  and  caring  lor  each  child  during  the 
mother’s  absence.  It  is  not  intended  to  provide  for  married  couples. 
Should  this  scheme  succeed  another  home  may  be  opened  for  widowers 
with  children.  Before  deciding  to  undertake  this  project  a  municipal 
deputation  visited  the  Familist&re  at  Guise  and  the  municipal  day  nur¬ 
series  ( creches )  at  Paris.  Work  has  not  yet  been  commenced,  owing  to 
unforeseen  difficulties  in  relation  to  the  site,  but  there  is  no  question 
about  the  enterprise  being  proceeded  with  as  soon  as  these  can  be 
adjusted. 

BUBNS’  HOMES,  GLASGOW,  SCOTLAND. 

Quite  as  interesting  in  every  respect  as  the  municipal  model  lodg¬ 
ing  houses  in  Glasgow  are  those  known  as  Burns’  homes.  Mr.  Robert 
Burns,  the  proprietor,  was  originally  a  manager  of  the  model  lodging 
houses  belonging  to  the  city.  Believing  that  it  was  possible  to  still 
improve  on  the  accommodations  and  make  money  out  of  the  invest- 


408  SPECIAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


ment,  lie  resigned  his  public  duties  about  thirteen  years  ago  and  estab¬ 
lished  his  own  houses.  He  was  able  to  command  sufficient  capital;  and, 
as  he  anticipated,  his  business  has  continuously  prospered.  Up  to 
August,  1892,  he  had  opened  six  homes  in  different  parts  of  the  city, 
furnishing  accommodation  for  3,130  persons  nightly,  and  a  seventh  was 
in  process  of  construction. 

The  prices  charged  for  accommodations  are  the  same  as  at  the  city 
lodging  houses,  except  that  there  is  an  additional  superior  grade  for 
which  6d.  (12  cents)  per  night  is  exacted.  The  free  use  of  hot  and  cold 
baths,  with  necessary  toilet  accompaniments,  cooking  utensils,  smoking, 
recreation,  and  dining  rooms,  a  laundry,  and  ample  lavatory  accommo¬ 
dations  are  included  in  the  prices  charged.  There  is  also  a  provision 
shop  at  which  inmates  may  purchase  provisions  at  low  rates.  Each 
home  is  in  charge  of  a  resident  superintendent,  and  Mr.  Burns  devotes 
his  whole  time  to  seeing  that  the  inmates  are  properly  treated  and  that 
strict  order  and  cleanliness  are  at  all  times  observed. 

New  buildings  have  not  been  erected  for  these  homes.  Existing 
buildings,  such  as  warehouses  which  could  be  easily  altered  and  put  in 
proper  condition,  have  been  selected.  In  this  way  considerable  expense 
has  been  saved.  The  reconstruction  has  been  carried  out  so  success¬ 
fully  that  the  buildings  seem  as  well  fitted  for  the  purpose  as  if  they 
had  been  originally  intended  for  model  lodging  houses. 

The  Watson  Street  Home  (No.  1)  was  formerly  a  warehouse,  and  has 
been  reconstructed  at  a  cost  of  £4,000  ($19,400).  It  has  a  wide  corri¬ 
dor  and  staircase,  the  walls  of  which  are  of  glazed  brick  all  the  way  to 
the  top  floor.  A  lavatory  containing  hot  and  cold  water  appliances,  a 
bath,  and  a  water-closet  for  night  use  only,  opens  to  the  corridor  on 
each  story.  The  stairways  being  of  cement,  a  strip  of  carpet  has  been 
placed  on  them.  The  carpet  also  leads  to  the  water-closets,  so  that  men 
getting  up  at  night  need  not  get  their  feet  cold.  A  fire  extinguishing 
apparatus  has  been  placed  on  each  landing. 

The  ground  floor  contains  a  sitting  and  eating  room,  meeting  hall, 
kitchen,  lavatories,  footbaths,  water-closets,  ticket  office,  and  grocery. 
The  sleeping  rooms  are  on  the  floors  above.  The  laundries  and  drying 
apparatus  are  in  the  basement.  The  sitting  room  is  provided  with 
chairs,  benches,  and  tables,  where  men  can  take  their  meals,  read  books 
and  newspapers,  and  amuse  themselves  at  their  leisure.  Various  games 
are  provided  without  cost.  Lodgers  can  remain  here  until  10.30  p.  m., 
the  gas  being  kept  lighted  until  that  time.  In  the  sitting  room  there 
have  also  been  placed  lockers,  one  of  which  is  of  sufficient  size  to  hold 
the  belongings  of  each  inmate.  By  depositing  6d.  (12  cents)  for  a  key  a 
man  can  store  away  his  effects  and  keep  them  safe.  As  the  men  spend 
most  of  their  leisure  time  in  the  sitting  room,  it  is  considered  preferable 
to  have  the  lockers  there  to  having  them  in  the  sleeping  rooms. 

The  meeting  hall  is  used  for  religious  exercises  on  Sundays  and  some¬ 
times  during  the  week,  as  well  as  for  free  entertainments  given  by  philan- 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


409 


tliropic  societies  or  by  the  inmates.  A  neatly  carpeted  platform,  with 
a  piano,  is  placed  at  one  end  of  the  hall.  Chairs  and  tables  are  dis¬ 
tributed  around  the  room.  The  entertainments  and  religious  meetings 
are  generally  well  attended.  The  office  adjoins  the  entrance  and  corri¬ 
dor.  Adjoining  the  office  is  the  grocery,  where  provisions  may  be 
bought  for  meals.  There  is,  however,  no  restriction  as  to  purchase,  and 
lodgers  may  buy  elsewhere  if  they  prefer.  The  grocery  and  office  are 
supervised  by  the  resident  superintendent  and  his  wife,  and  profits  from 
sales  belong  to  the  superintendent.  The  scale  of  prices  is  fixed,  and 
articles  are  inspected  by  the  proprietor. 

Adjoining  the  eating  room  is  the  kitchen.  Here  the  men  obtain  such 
utensils  as  they  may  require  for  the  preparation  of  their  meals.  A 
large  range,  shaped  like  a  horseshoe,  affords  sufficient  space  for  a  num¬ 
ber  of  men  to  stand  and  cook  simultaneously.  Four  hundred  persons 
may  be  occupied  at  one  time  in  the  kitchen  and  eating  room.  To  facili¬ 
tate  cooking  hot  water  is  always  ready.  Wash  basins  are  close  by,  so 
that  the  men  may  wash  their  hands  before  eating.  Plates  and  bowls 
are  provided,  and  the  prepared  food  is  then  carried  to  the  eating  room 
tables.  No  meals  are  cooked  by  employees  of  the  proprietor. 

Before  going  to  the  sleeping  rooms  or  kitchen  the  men  are  expected 
to  wash  and  clean  themselves.  If  their  clothes  are  in  any  way  filthy 
they  are  compelled  to  thoroughly  wash  them  before  using  the  beds. 
The  lavatories  are  supplied  with  hot  and  cold  water,  soap,  and  other 
necessaries,  and  running  along  one  wall  is  a  row  of  footbaths.  These 
are  very  popular,  and  men  who  have  been  standing  or  walking  much 
during  the  day  often  spend  hours  in  this  room  with  their  feet  immersed 
in  the  soothing  water.  The  bathrooms  are  close  at  hand  and  may 
be  used  without  cost.  Here,  also,  hot  and  cold  water  are  furnished. 
Water-closets  for  use  during  the  day  are  on  the  ground  floor  and  are 
of  the  latest  improved  style,  having  an  overhead  tank  with  a  2-gallon 
flush.  They  are  regularly  disinfected. 

The  laundry  is  provided  with  a  number  of  bowls  or  sinks  of  galvan¬ 
ized  iron  ware,  having  a  cold  water  faucet  immediately  above  them. 
The  water  is  heated  by  means  of  a  steam  pipe,  which  is  so  arranged 
that  it  may  be  connected  with  any  one  of  the  bowls  and  the  steam 
turned  on  under  the  surface  of  the  water.  By  this  means  water  can  be 
heated  in  about  ten  minutes.  A  large  saving  of  hot  water  from  the 
boilers  is  thus  effected.  Clothes  are  dried  in  a  hot  chamber,  which  is 
heated  to  a  high  temperature  by  means  of  steam  pipes.  The  men 
usually  do  their  own  washing,  but  they  may  have  it  done  by  paying 
2d.  (4  cents). 

The  stories  above  the  ground  floor  are  all  used  for  sleeping  purposes. 
The  house  contains  512  beds.  On  the  average  there  are  400  regular 
inmates,  and  about  50  occasional  or  transient  lodgers.  When  fairly 
filled  the  house  pays  a  net  profit  of  about  £500  ($2,433.25)  per  year. 
There  are  four  grades  of  accommodation,  namely,  beds  for  3^d.,  4d., 


IK)  MI'lOClIAIi  It  16 1'OftT  Oir  TIIK  noMMIHHIOifKIt  OK  I-AHOIt 


IjJil,,  and  Oil.  (7  onnfn,  H  oonfn,  II  onnf.N,  and  I d  oontn)  pur  night,  Tbo 
Hint  Mi i oo  namod  aro  !ii  oiildolon,  arranged  in  largo  airy  roomp  wiMi 
<1 1  i  1 1  f  r  M  III  Mil  I  d  Id  III  loo!/  high,  Tlio  (Mirll  IfOMM  HOparaflllg  MlO 
mhloloM  from  oiio  anothor  aro  iiiimIo  of  wood,  noafl.y  pain  tod,  an  it 
min  7  loot  high,  and  loavlng  »i.  oloar  M|  111,0,0  of  liboti!/  5  loot,  abovo  for 
I  ho  1 1 oo  oIioiiImUoii  of  air.  Tbo  fomporafiiro  and  vonfllaflon  of  III© 
looinri  mo  ingiilatod  by  l.lio  wafohinan,  who  patrol*  l.lio  Hoorn  during 
I lin  nnflrn  nlglif.  In  I, ho  wlnl.or  nfoain  lion, I,  in  Intfoditood.  'I’lio  nloop- 
III//  mourn  n.ro  oloanod  and  norn  blind  ono©  ovory  day,  atld  ad, or  bodn  ar© 
Vii, on, I  oil  in  l.lio  nun  nlng  l.lio  nlotlilfig  in  woll  nlrod  find  nil  odorn  romovod. 
All  l.lio  liodn  linvn  hair  inn, II ronnnn  and  oloan  nlinotn.  'I’lio  bodn  for  3jJd. 
and  4d  (7  oonfn  and  M  o.onl.n)  aro  provldod  with  ono  oloan  nliool.  ovory 
night,  and  l.lio  bodn  lor  l^d.  (t>  onnfn)  with  two  oloan  nliool/H  ovory  night. 
'I’lio  lal  In  (u  ndo  of  bodn  ban  nprlng  ninll  ronnon.  'I’lio  bodn  for  4d.  and 
l.(,d.  (M  h  iiI  it  and  II  o,on  I  n )  iu  o  morn  con  von  Ion  My  local  nd  I, ban  I, ho  ohoapnr 
onon.  'I’o  ohm  n  nn  I/O  npaoo  many  of  l.lio  onbiolon  aro  no  arrangod  Mint, 
l.lio  bod  In  ono  coll  In  almvo  l.lio  bod  in  i.lio  ol.lior,  l  int  oolln,  howovor, 
lining  entirely  dlnl.inol,  from  oaoli  ol.lior.  'I’lio  moibd  for  I, Idn  dinponl- 
llon  wan  monl,  probably  found  In  ooi  lain  nl.aloroomn  of  largo  non,  going 
pannnngnr  vonnoln,  bill,,  of  ooiirno,  oaoli  onblolo  In  mount  for  ono  pnr* 
non  only,  lOiiiOb  man  onn  boll,  bln  door  wbon  ho  rotlroH,  and  I, linn  bo 
ooinplnloly  Innlafod  from  all  bln  I'ollown.  A  wlro  nornon  In  nl, rote, hod 
a*  i  onn  Mini,  pin  !, Ion  of  l  int  fop  ol  I  ho  utibloln  wboro  nlnthon  hooltn 
n i h  phn  oil,  lo  provonl.  Indgorn  ©foaling  l.liolr  nolghboiV  clothing  and 
bnlnnglngn  dm  inn  I, bo  night,  A  ©trip  of  on, r pot  oovorn  a  largo  part  of 
I  ho  f loot  npaoo  of  oaoli  onblolo,  n,  III  l  ie  all, notion  which  nornnn  to  add  l,o 
I  ho  homollhononn  id'  I  ho  piano  in  l  int  mlndn  of  lodgor©,  common!,  being 
IVoipioiitly  inado  upon  thin  nbnplo  Ibalnro,  liodn  lotting  at  (Id.  (I'd  non  I,©) 
por  nlglif  aio  In  noparato  mount  Innfond  of  oiildolon.  They  Imvo  nnpo- 
iioi  miiiftronnon  and  aro  fiirnlnhod  with  two  oloan  nlioot*  ovory  night, 
lOaoh  boil  mom  ban  an  nvorngo  of  inn  on  bio  foot  of  air  npaoo. 

About  twolvo  pornonn  aro  o onn! n,i i fly  omployod  It)  oaoli  homo.  'I’lio 
nnpoi  I  n  tom  I  on  I,  ban  nomplnfn  olinrgn  ol  tbo  lion  no,  and  nil  ol.lior  nmployooa 
aro  n m Ir i  bln  ord <  i  n,  I  lo  in  i onponnlldoi  for  Mio  oloanllnonn  and  nanifary 
oond  1 1,  loi  i  of  fbo  hoiino,  lull  on  In  all  monoy,  and  Itoopn  tbo  nnnnnnf©.  In 
fliln  fborn  in  no  ©ynlnin  of  anlonnifio  i ©gin!, ration  or  ol.lior  appllanno  to 
provonl,  fraud.  If  In  Mr.  Itnrnn’  bollol  III  ill,  by  paying  good  nahirlon  fti 
bin  ninploynoM  hi  id  friinllng  I, bom  in  mb  boffor  ronnlfn  may  bo  obfalnod. 
Tbo  nupnihifniidniif  rooolvoN  CHO  (iJhlHII.Jiy)  por  annum  and  onjoy©  I, ho 
nno  ol  two  roomn  and  n,  It  Ifobon  for  blinnolf  and  family,  IVoo  fool,  and 
fbo  pi'ollliN  nooriilng  from  tbo  grooory,  Only  marrlod  men  aro  fulton, 
and!  holt  wlvon  arnoxpnofod  to  annlnl,  In  tbo  managomont.  'I'boy  aro 
not  pm  mil  foil  to  llvo  oiilnldo  tbo  building©.  Thorn  in  ooinddorahlo 
omnlatlon  among  tbo  niipnrlnfniidnnlA  of  fbo  dllforouf  liomon,  oaoli  fry¬ 
ing  to  outdo  fbo  ofhoi  in  oloanllnonn  and  gmioral  good  managomont. 
Tbroo  oi  loin  mnii  am  omployod  for  polloo  nor  vino,  an  watchman  and 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES.  411 

general  workers,  and  about  eight  women  are  constantly  occupied  in 
scrubbing,  washing,  and  general  cleaning. 

The  largest  of  the  houses,  Watson  Street  Home  (No.  2),  accommodates 
070  people.  The  building  was  originally  intended  for  office  purposes, 
and  has  quite  an  attractive  outside  appearance.  The  interior  arrange¬ 
ments  are  similar  to  those  already  described,  except  that  the  hot 
chamber  for  drying  clothes  is  replaced  by  a  much  smaller  one,  heated 
to  an  extremely  high  temperature,  into  which  iron  clotheshorses  slide 
on  rails. 

Another  of  these  lodging  houses,  called  the  Star  Home,  though  on 
the  same  street,  is  at  some  distance  from  the  ones  just  described.  It  is 
more  private  than  the  others  and  is  used  mostly  by  older  men,  who  like 
a  quiet  home.  In  this  inmates  pay  £d.  (1  cent)  more  per  night.  The 
house  is  always  full.  There  is  accommodation  for  118  persons. 

A  fourth  lodging  house,  the  Garscube  Road  Home,  has  593  beds. 
Nearly  all  of  the  lodgers  are  workingmen  regularly  employed  in  the 
vicinity.  This  building  was  opened  in  January,  1892.  It  has  a  more 
home-like  appearance  than  any  of  the  others.  Situated  outside  of  the 
crowded  parts  of  the  city,  it  has  not  been  so  necessary  to  economize 
ground  space,  so  a  broad  lawn  has  been  made  to  extend  along  the 
whole  front  of  the  building,  and  in  the  rear  a  space  has  been  left  for 
athletic  recreation.  Viewed  from  the  outside,  the  building  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  boarding  school.  It  contains  two  recreation  and  read¬ 
ing  rooms,  provided  with  four  daily  papers,  six  periodicals,  and  games, 
such  as  draughts,  bagatelle,  etc.  Quoits  are  played  in  the  court  out¬ 
side.  In  addition  to  lockers,  as  described  in  the  first  house,  this  house 
has  a  parcel  room,  where  clothes  and  other  effects  may  be  left  and 
checked. 

A  distinguishing  feature  of  all  these  lodging  houses  is  the  great 
economy  in  the  use  of  fuel  and  hot  water.  Wherever  it  is  possible 
steam  is  used  for  heating.  Another  important  feature  is  the  attention 
given  to  providing  little  conveniences  for  the  men  so  that  there  may  be 
nothing  wanting  to  make  their  lodgings  attractive  and  comfortable. 
There  are  thus  the  free  baths,  the  footbaths,  the  upstairs  corridor 
closets,  the  strips  of  carpet,  etc.  In  some  of  the  houses  there  is  also 
a  room  set  aside  for  a  barber  shop.  There  is  a  chemical  disinfecting 
room  in  each  house  in  which  clothes  of  filthy  or  suspicious  persons  are 
placed  for  cleansing.  The  superintendents  visit  the  proprietor  daily  at 
11  o’clock  a.  in.,  to  give  information  concerning  the  buildings  and  to 
receive  orders.  Mr.  Burns,  himself,  makes  inspections  at  irregular 
intervals,  sometimes  during  the  day  and  often  in  the  middle  of  the  night 
or  early  morning,  to  assure  himself  that  all  is  going  well. 

It  was  stated  at  the  municipal  lodging  houses  that  since  payment  for 
bathing  had  been  abolished  the  number  of  lodgers  using  the  baths 
had  decreased  from  30  per  cent  to  6  per  cent.  Bathing  has  always  been 
free  in  Mr.  Burns’  homes,  and  a  large  number  avail  themselves  of  the 


412  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


privilege.  It  has  been  suggested  that  possibly  employees  are  not  so 
assiduous  in  preparing  baths  for  those  requesting  them  when  no  finan¬ 
cial  returns  have  to  be  made.  Undoubtedly  a  great  deal  depends  upon 
employees  and  their  attitude.  Mr.  Burns  insists  that  his  superintend¬ 
ents  shall  encourage  bathing  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 

The  following  are  the  rules  and  regulations  applicable  to  the  Burns 
homes: 

1.  Lodgers  will  be  received  between  the  hours  of  6  a.  m.  and  10.30  p.  m. 

2.  No  one  will  be  admitted  to  the  halls  or  kitchen  until  provided  with 
a  ticket,  which  can  be  had  from  the  proprietor  or  his  assistant. 

3.  Lodgers  will  be  admitted  to  bed  at  8,  9, 10,  and  10.30  p.  m.  on  deliv¬ 
ering  up  their  tickets  to  the  assistant. 

4.  No  smoking  is  allowed  on  the  stairs  or  in  the  dormitories  or  dining 
hall.  • 

5.  No  spirituous  liquors  are  to  be  brought  into  the  homes.  No  gam¬ 
bling,  quarreling, profane  or  indecent  language,  or  noises  of  any  descrip¬ 
tion  will  be  allowed,  nor  anything  calculated  to  disturb  the  peace  and 
good  order  of  the  place  or  the  comfort  of  the  inmates.  Anyone  violat¬ 
ing  this  rule  will  be  expelled  and  his  ticket  forfeited. 

6.  Beds  must  be  vacated  by  8  o’clock  in  the  morning,  except  in  special 
cases,  to  be  judged  of  by  the  proprietor  or  his  assistant. 

7.  Doors  will  be  opened  each  morning  at  5  o’clock,  and  will  be  closed 
at  11  p.  m.  on  week  days  and  at  10.30  p.  m.  on  Sundays.  Lodgers 
arranging  beforehand  with  the  proprietor  or  his  assistant  may,  how¬ 
ever,  be  admitted  after  that  hour. 

8.  All  property  belonging  to  lodgers  must  be  considered  as  under 
their  own  care,  but  each  lodger  may  have  a  separate  token  on  deposit¬ 
ing  6d.  (12  cents),  this  deposit  to  be  returned  on  redelivery  of  the  key. 

It  is  a  significant  fact,  speaking  not  a  little  for  the  comfort  and  good 
order  of  these  establishments,  that  80  per  cent  of  the  occupants  of  Mr. 
Burns’  homes  are  permanent  lodgers. 

EDINBUEGH,  SCOTLAND. 

In  Edinburgh  the  Grass  Market  Model  Lodging  House  Company 
pays  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent.  The  lodging  house  of  this  company  is 
arranged  upon  the  Glasgow  system.  The  house  contains  380  beds,  and 
the  charges  are — 36  at  6d.  (12  cents),  24  at  5d.  (10  cents),  and  320  at  4d. 
(8  cents)  per  night.  Each  lodger  has  the  use  of  a  locker;  also  the  use 
of  cooking  utensils,  kitchen  fires,  dining  hall,  reading  hall,  etc.,  for  the 
one  payment.  Provisions  are  sold  in  the  house  at  ordinary  trade 
prices.  A  charge  of  Id.  (2  cents)  is  made  for  a  hot  bath,  with  soap  and 
clean  towel.  This  model  lodging  house  is,  like  all  common  lodging 
houses,  subject  to  the  regulations  made  by  the  corporation. 

LONDON  COUNTY  COUNCIL  LODGING  HOUSES,  LONDON, 

ENGLAND. 

The  first  of  the  London  County  Council’s  model  lodging  houses 
was  erected  in  Parker  street,  and  completed  in  1892.  The  total  cost 
was  £21,403  ($104,157.70),  of  which  £15,353  ($74,715.37)  was  expended 


Section  C.  D. 

LONDON  COUNTY  COUNCIL  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSE,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Plan  No.  79  a. 


Section  E.  F. 


ZllrrxJbr 


r....r  f  *  **  *  r  ,»  r  f  r  rn  fr- 


Section  through  day  room  and 
cubicles  showing  light  and 
ventilation. 


/•  ^  r  r  r 

First  floor 


Ground  floor. 


LONDON  COUNTY  COUNCIL  MUNICIPAL  LODGING  HOUSE,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 
Plan  No.  79  6. 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


413 


on  the  building.  The  cost  of  land,  furnishings,  and  incidental  expenses 
represent  the  remainder.  The  building  accommodates  326  men.  The 
price  of  a  bed  is  5d.  (10  cents)  per  night.  The  enterprise  is  expected  to 
yield  a  return  of  3  per  cent,  and  to  provide  an  adequate  sinking  fund 
to  liquidate  the  building  capital. 

Plans  and  elevation  of  the  building  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cuts  (plans  Nos.  79  A  and  79  B).  In  them  the  dormitories  are  the  cen¬ 
tral  point  of  consideration,  since  they  are  the  parts  of  the  building 
which  are  occupied  during  the  longest  periods. 

It  is  claimed  that  an  improvement  as  regards  ventilation  and  fresh 
air  to  the  sleeper  has  been  made  over  the  Glasgow  models.  In  them 
the  danger  is  that  currents  passing  over  the  top  of  each  cubicle  will 
not  sufficiently  ventilate  the  cubicle  and  therefore  the  atmosphere  will 
largely  remain  unchanged  during  the  night.  In  the  London  building 
dormitories  are  arranged  in  two  halls  each  70  feet  by  32  feet  with  three 
tiers  of  galleries  ranging  around  a  central  well.  Four  hundred  and 
thirty-five  cubic  feet  of  air  space  is  allowed  to  each  sleeper.  Adjoining 
the  external  wall  of  these  galleries  are  cubicles  6  feet  6  inches  by  4  feet, 
and  7  feet  7  inches  high.  Each  cubicle  has  a  double  hung  sash  window 
4  feet  9  inches  by  1  foot  9  inches.  The  windows  are  arranged  in  pairs, 
with  a  fresli-air  inlet  in  the  breast  of  each  at  the  floor  level,  supplying 
a  current  that  passes  over  a  low-pressure  hot- water  pipe.  The  current 
is  admitted  into  each  cubicle  at  a  height  of  about  4  feet  6  inches.  The 
divisions  between  the  cubicles  are  carried  up  to  the  ceilings,  while  the 
ends  next  to  the  galleries  are  5  feet  6  inches  in  height,  leaving  an  open 
space  of  20  inches  to  insure  a  current  from  the  air  inlets  to  the  central 
well,  from  the  roof  of  which  the  foul  air  is  extracted. 

Beds  upon  iron  frames  are  tapered  so  as  to  increase  the  floor  space, 
and  the  feet  of  the  sleeper  are  placed  toward  the  window  so  that  his 
head  may  be  free  from  draft.  Cubicles  are  for  one  person  only  and  are 
entirely  private.  They  are  each  provided  with  a  bolt  lock,  which  fas¬ 
tens  when  the  door  is  closed.  Galleries  are  protected  by  iron  railings  4 
feet  6  inches  high  surrounding  the  central  well.  The  latter  is  venti¬ 
lated  by  a  cabin  roof-light  with  opening  sashes  for  use  in  warm  weather. 
The  ventilating  gas  pendants  discharge  into  extract  ventilators  over, 
fitted  with  mica  flap  boxes  to  prevent  down  draft,  which  insures 
ample  ventilation  at  other  seasons.  Each  gallery  is  provided  with  a 
lavatory  block  separated  from  the  main  building  and  containing  one 
water-closet  and  urinal  for  night  use.  A  box  for  a  night  watchman  is 
situated  in  each  hall  so  as  to  command  the  entire  dormitory  space.  The 
approaches  to  dormitories  are  staircases,  6  feet  wide,  coming  direct 
from  the  entrance  hall  and  affording  access  to  each  gallery.  There  is  a 
private  staircase  for  employees,  and  dumb-waiters  for  lifting  linen  and 
other  materials.  The  basement  is  occupied  by  a  disinfecting  chamber, 
cold  storage,  and  heating  apparatus.  On  the  ground  floor  there  is  a 
central  entrance  hall  giving  access  to  the  various  parts  of  the  building. 


414  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

Facing  the  entrance  is  the  office,  which  adjoins  the  sitting  room  and 
overlooks  the  dining  room.  The  sitting  room,  or  day  room,  is  70  feet 
by  32  feet  and  furnishes  ample  accommodation  for  entertainments,  etc. 
It  has  windows  on  all  sides.  A  small  room  fitted  with  lockers  for  the 
use  of  regular  lodgers  adjoins  the  day  room.  The  dining  room  is  47 
feet  by  32  feet.  It  has  two  large  open  fireplaces  and  communicates 
with  a  kitchen  32  feet  by  22  feet,  where  a  hot  plate  50  feet  in  length, 
for  cooking  purposes,  has  been  erected.  Next  to  the  kitchen  is  the 
scullery,  21  feet  by  14  feet,  with  its  storeroom  11  feet  by  9  feet  adjoin¬ 
ing,  where  there  is  a  counter  for  receiving  and  serving  of  utensils.  Next 
to  the  dining  room  is  the  grocery,  where  provisions  may  be  had  at  low 
prices.  A  small  outhouse  has  been  erected  for  laundry  and  linen  stor¬ 
age.  It  is  one  story  high  and  contains  a  receiving,  washing,  and  dry¬ 
ing  room,  with  ironing  room  and  linen  store.  Though  distinct  from 
the  main  building,  a  door  communicates  with  it  directly  from  the  rear 
public  corridor,  so  that  lodgers  who  require  washing  done  may  there 
hand  it  in. 

There  is  a  glass-covered  exercise  yard,  33  feet  by  21  feet,  behind  the 
entrance  hall  and  leading  to  the  conveniences  for  day  use  which  are 
entirely  isolated  from  the  main  building.  These  conveniences  comprise 
lavatory,  water-closet,  urinals,  footbaths,  baths,  and  lodgers’  washing 
and  drying  rooms. 

The  structure  is  of  brick.  Glazed  brown  bricks  are  used  in  the  front 
for  the  first  floor.  Internal  walls  are  rendered  in  Portland  cement. 
The  building  while  not  absolutely  fireproof  is  eminently  fire  resisting. 
The  space  between  the  iron  girders  is  filled  with  concrete.  Floorings 
of  day  room  and  halls  are  in  wood  blocks,  while  kitchen  and  all  other 
floors  are  floated  in  cement. 

This  establishment  has  proved  a  great  success  and  has  secured  a 
large  patronage.  Undoubtedly  the  council  will  build  other  lodging 
houses  in  different  sections  of  London,  not  only  for  men  but  for  women 
as  well. 

ROWTON  HOUSE,  LONDON,  ENGLAND. 

Rowton  House,  Vauxhall,  was  erected  by  Lord  Rowton,  at  a  cost  of 
about  £30,000  ($145,995),  with  a  view  of  improving  that  large  class  of 
wage-earning  single  men  who  have  uncertain  occupation  and  no  settled 
home.  It  was  opened  December  31, 1892.  It  is  a  magnificent  structure, 
admirably  fitted  throughout,  and  in  all  salient  respects  a  residential 
club. 

The  prices  charged  are  6d.  (12  cents)  per  night.  The  interior  dis¬ 
positions  of  this  building  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  already 
described.  The  cubicles  are  7  feet  6  inches  by  4  feet  9  inches,  arranged 
on  the  Glasgow  plan,  and  allowing  440  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  occu¬ 
pant.  The  feature  of  this  house  distinguishing  it  from  the  others  so 
far  mentioned  is  that  lodgers  may  have  the  choice  of  cooking  their  own 
food  or  of  having  meals  served  at  stipulated  rates.  There  is  adequate 


CHAPTER  XI. - MODEL  LODGING  HOUSES. 


415 


lavatory  and  bathing  accommodation,  while  the  sanitary  conveniences 
are  such  as  would  do  credit  to  a  first  class  hotel.  The  building  contains 
470  cubicles,  each  furnished  with  a  chair  and  an  iron  bedstead  having  a 
steel  wire  woven  mattress,  a  hair  mattress,  bolster,  blanket,  sheets,  and 
coverlet.  Lord  Rowton  believes  that  ultimately  the  ratepayers  in  large 
English  cities  must  take  up  the  question  of  housing  the  very  poor  and 
submerged  classes.  He  therefore  thinks  that  private  enterprise  should 
make  experiments  in  order  to  fix  the  prices  at  which  this  can  be  done. 
A  few  years  ago  he  went  to  Mr.  Farrant,  the  moving  spirit  of  the 
Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company  and  stated  his 
willingness  to  risk  £25,000  ($121,662.50)  of  his  own  money  in  the  enter¬ 
prise,  and  asked  the  latter’s  advice  and  assistance.  It  was  of  course 
cheerfully  given,  and  the  result  has  proved  so  satisfactory  that  a  limited 
liability  company  has  recently  been  formed  with  a  capital  stock  of 
£75,000  ($364,987.50),  with  Lord  Rowton  as  president  and  Mr.  Farrant 
as  one  of  the  directors,  to  extend  this  work  in  other  parts  of  London. 
It  is  proposed  to  build  a  second  lodging  house  near  King’s  Cross. 

Lord  Rowton,  the  very  first  year,  which  ended  December  31,  1893, 
received  5  per  cent  on  his  capital,  and  for  the  last  three  months  of  that 
year,  before  his  enterprise  was  taken  over  by  the  company,  the  profits 
showed  a  rate  of  over  6  per  cent  per  annum. 

HUDDERSFIELD,  ENGLAND. 

Huddersfield  has  four  types  of  model  lodging  houses.  The  total 
number  of  lodgers  in  the  single  men’s  department,  in  1892,  was  44,404; 
in  the  single  women’s  department,  4,247 ;  in  the  married  couples’  depart¬ 
ment,  6,422,  and  in  the  mechanics’  home  department,  13,993.  There  are 
123  beds  for  single  men,  12  for  single  women,  9  for  married  couples,  and 
41  beds  in  the  mechanics’  home  department.  Only  persons  of  cleanly, 
respectable  habits,  perfectly  sober  and  free  from  disease  or  filth  and  in 
full  possession  of  their  mental  faculties  are  admitted  as  lodgers.  Per¬ 
sons  whose  wives  or  husbands  are  in  receipt  of  parochial  relief,  except 
where  granted  on  account  of  accident,  are  not  admitted.  Receipts  for 
the  fiscal  year  1892  were  as  follows:  Single  men’s  department,  at  3d. 
(6  cents)  per  night,  £555  Is.  ($2,701.15) ;  single  women’s  department,  at 
3d.  (6  cents)  per  night,  £53  Is.  9d.  ($258.35) ;  married  couples’  depart¬ 
ment,  at  6d.  (12  cents)  per  night,  £80  5s.  6d.  ($390.66),  and  mechanics 
home  department,  at  5d.  (10  cents)  per  night,  £291  10s.  5d.  ($1,418.69). 

LIVERPOOL,  ENGLAND. 

Liverpool  has  no  municipal  model  lodging  house,  but  a  control  is 
exercised  over  common  lodging  houses.  In  these  latter  the  health 
committee  insists  as  far  as  possible  that  there  shall  be  day  apartments. 

The  air  space  required  for  a  night  lodger  in  the  common  lodging 
houses  is  300  cubic  feet,  while  the  space  in  a  sublet  house  for  each 

adult  is  350  cubic  feet. 


416  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOjk,. 


At  tlie  end  of  1892  there  were  817  registered  lodging  houses  in  Liver¬ 
pool.  They  were  visited  during  the  year  35,461  times  during  the  day 
and  5,428  times  during  the  night.  Sixteen  were  found  overcrowded 
and  111  were  dirty.  The  health  committee  insists  that  all  houses  where 
single  rooms  are  occupied  by  the  day  and  night  must  be  registered  as 
sublet.  The  number  of  such  sublet  houses  at  the  end  of  1892  was 
20,134.  The  number  of  visits  to  them  during  the  night  was  22,336  and 
during  the  day  101,201.  One  thousand  three  hundred  and  two  rooms 
were  found  to  be  overcrowded — that  is,  were  found  to  afford  less  than 
350  cubic  feet  per  adult  occupant.  Permitting  males  and  females  who 
are  not  married  to  occupy  the  same  room  comes  under  the  notice  of  the 
sanitary  inspectors,  though  it  is  not  a  punishable  offense  in  sublet 
houses.  During  1892,  says  the  official  report  of  Dr.  J.  Stopford  Taylor, 
the  medical  officer  of  health,  632  rooms  were  thus  indecently  occupied 
by  1,001  males  and  1,069  females,  besides  428  children  between  the  ages 
of  3  and  12.  In  322  instances,  1  man  and  2  women  were  found  in  the 
same  bedroom;  in  156  instances,  2  men  and  1  woman;  in  48  instances,  2 
men  and  2  women;  in  23  instances,  1  man  and  3  women;  in  70  instances, 
3  men  and  3  women;  in  3  instances,  2  men  and  3  women;  in  3  instances, 

3  men  and  2  women ;  in  1  instance,  1  man  and  4  women ;  in  1  instance, 

4  men  and  1  woman;  in  2  instances,  1  man  and  5  women;  in  2  instances, 

5  men  and  1  woman,  and  in  1  instance,  6  men  and  2  women. 

These  facts  only  emphasize  the  necessity  of  a  thorough  provision  of 
model  lodging  houses,  either  by  the  corporation  or  by  private  enter¬ 
prise,  so  that  there  may  no  longer  be  any  excuse  for  overcrowding  and 
immoral  commingling.  Such  institutions  have  a  profound  sociological 
value,  dealing,  as  they  do,  as  a  rule,  with  the  lower  strata  of  working 
people,  or,  indeed,  with  those  who  have  lost  social  caste.  The  strict 
discipline  and  regulation  to  which  inmates  are  subjected  are  of  great 
importance.  Social  workers  have  also  a  good  chance  to  come  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  inmates,  and  an  excellent  opportunity  is  created,  by  pro¬ 
viding  sound  recreation,  to  overcome  the  baleful  saloon  habit  and  the 
philosophy  of  the  streets.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  a  work  that  can 
be  done  with  financial  profit.  In  large  cities  where  there  is  a  lack  of 
these  institutions,  overcrowding,  with  its  attendant  moral  evils,  is  sure 
to  prevail. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS. 


417 

H.  Ex.  354 - 27 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS. 

Will  improved  housing  pay?  This  is  a  question  of  cardinal  impor¬ 
tance,  and  only  in  case  an  affirmative  response  is  forthcoming  can  we 
augur  a  successful  issue  to  the  housing  problem.  If  the  solution  of  the 
problem  is  to  depend  upon  philanthropy  alone  it  is  safe  to  say  that  very 
small  progress  can  be  made.  If  city  dwellers  are  to  be  better  housed 
better  housing  must  pay. 

There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  remunerative  character  of  housing 
operations  conducted  in  the  interests  of  the  artisan  and  other  well  paid 
laborers.  Money  invested  for  this  purpose  brings  a  sure,  safe,  and  stable 
return.  There  is,  therefore,  absolutely  no  reason  why  every  working¬ 
man  in  receipt  of  a  fair  wage  should  not  be  able  to  command  a  favorable 
liviug  environment.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  rents  paid  for  inferior 
houses  are  often  quite  as  high,  and  in  some  cases  higher,  than  those 
paid  for  a  good  class  of  dwellings.  In  illustration  of  this  fact  the  fol¬ 
lowing  comparative  tables  showing  the  weekly  rent  per  room  in  tene¬ 
ments  belonging  to  the  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company  and 
rents  charged  for  tenements  in  houses  ordered  vacated  by  the  board  of 
health  in  1892  are  cited  : 

WEEKLY  RENTS  PER  ROOM  IN  TENEMENTS  OF  THE  BOSTON  COOPERATIVE 

BUILDING  COMPANY. 


[From  report  of  the  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  1892.] 


Street. 

Number 

of 

houses. 

Descrip¬ 
tion  of 
houses. 

Number 

of 

rooms. 

Families. 

Persons. 

Weekly 
rent  per 
room. 

East  Canton . 

18 

Old . 

238 

78 

262 

$0.  90 
.79 

Bnsh . 

4 

Old . 

56 

23 

53 

Thorne . 

2 

Old . 

28 

9 

37 

.75 

Andrew . 

3 

Old . 

34 

12 

35 

.80 

Andrew  place,  1  and  2 . 

2 

New. ... 

24 

12 

25 

1.08 

Andrew  place,  4,  6,  8, 10, 12 . .. . 

5 

Now. ... 

39 

15 

50 

.92 

Clark _ t . . 

5 

Old . 

52 

17 

65 

.74 

Endicott . 

1 

Old . 

39 

13 

44 

.80 

Thaclier,  21 . 

1 

Old . 

24 

10 

38 

.87 

Thacher,  19 . 

1 

Old . 

21 

8 

21 

.85 

Thaclier,  15 . 

1 

New.... 

23 

9 

50 

1. 05J 
1.16 

Thacher,  13 . 

1 

New.... 

30 

15 

45 

Phillips . 

8 

Old . 

86 

33 

77 

.68 

All  of  these  houses  are  of  brick  except  the  Clark  street  estate  and 
the  Phillips  street  estate.  The  first  four,  namely,  the  East  Canton, 
Bush,  Thorne,  and  Andrew  street  properties,  are  about  twenty  years  old. 

419 


420  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


WEEKLY  KENTS  PER  ROOM  IN  HOUSES  ORDERED  VACATED  BY  THE  BOSTON  BOARD 

OE  HEALTH  IN  FEBRUARY.  1892. 


[From  Report  No.  1,  Better  Dwellings  Society,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  June  1,  1892.] 


Date. 

Street. 

Number  of  rooms 
in  tenement. 

N umber  of  occupants 
in  tenement. 

Weekly 
rent  per 
room. 

1881 

2  rooms . . 

$0.63 

.58 

.42 

1.25 

.75 

.75 

.77 

.81 

.81 

.58 

1880 

2  rooms . . 

1881 

Endicott,  135  (rear)  ... 

3  dismal  rooms . 

1887 . 

2  rooms . . . 

1884 

Endicott,  163  (rear)  ... 
Endicott,  163  (rear)  --- 
Endicott,  163  (rear)  ... 
Everett,  court _ 

2  rooms . . . . 

1892 

2  rooms . . 

1892 . 

3  rooms . . 

1883 . 

1  small  room  .......... 

1891- . 

Everett  court . 

1  small  room . 

1892  (Feb.  18) . 

North  Brimmer  place, 
2. 

2  rooms,  first  floor  front 

Man  and  wife  and  2 
children. 

The  comparison  is  a  perfectly  fair  one  to  make,  the  two  classes  of 
property  being  situated  in  the  same  parts  of  the  city  and  sometimes  in 
the  same  street. 

The  moral  is  evident.  If  the  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company 
can  afford  to  provide  sanitary  and  convenient  accommodations  at  a 
figure  considerably  smaller  than  is  often  charged  for  houses  which  are  so 
bad  that  they  have  to  be  closed  by  public  authority,  and  yet  earn  6  per 
cent  besides  providing  for  a  substantial  depreciation  fund,  there  would 
seem  to  be  absolutely  no  reason  why  private  capital  should  not  house 
the  working  population  of  Boston  on  a  satisfactory  commercial  basis. 

Rents  for  the  poor  are  said  to  be  higher  in  the  Boston  tenements  than 
in  any  other  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States.  There  is  certainly  a 
considerable  difference  between  the  rentals  in  model  tenement  buildings 
in  Boston  and  abroad.  The  average  for  the  new  brick  buildings  of  the 
Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company  in  the  north  end  is  $1.10  per  room 
per  week ;  in  the  south  end  $1  per  room  per  week.  The  average  rental  of 
the  Peabody  buildings  is  2s.  If  d.  (52  cents)  per  room  per  week,  and  of  the 
Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company  about  2s.  2d.  (53  cents). 

Corroborative  evidence  of  the  statements  just  made  in  reference  to 
comparative  rents  in  sanitary  and  insanitary  tenements  appears  in  the 
following  table,  which  refers  to  Glasgow: 

MONTHLY  RENTS  CHARGED  FOR  MODEL,  TICKETED,  AND  UNINHABITABLE  TENE- 

MENTS  IN  GLASGOW. 

[From  an  article  on  Uninhabitable  Houses,  by  Dr.  Janies  B.  Russell,  in  the  Sanitary  Journal  for 

September,  1891.] 


Average 

Cubic 
space  per 
inmate. 

Rent. 

Class  of  tenements. 

Total  cu¬ 
bic  space. 

number 
of  in¬ 
mates. 

Per 

month. 

Per 

inmate. 

Per  1,000 
cubic 
feet. 

ONE  BOOM. 

Improvement  Trust  Model . . 

Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company . 

2,213 
1, 189 
1,058 

2.  92 

758 

$3.24 
2.  09 

$1. 11 

$1.46 

1.77 

li eke  ted . 

3.17 

334 

1.93 

.61 

1.83 

Uninhabitable . 

1,265 

3. 08 

411 

1.56 

.51 

1.24 

TWO  ROOM. 

Improvement  Trust  Model . 

Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company . 

3,158 

1,964 

1,725 

4. 29 

736 

3. 97 
2.82 

.93 

1. 26 
1.44 

Ticketed . .. . . 

4.  66 

370 

2.49 

.54 

1.44 

Uninhabitable . . 

1,  090 

4.24 

398 

2. 07 

.49 

ol.  40 

a  Probably  an  error;  apparently  should  be  $1.22. 


CHAPTER  XII. — ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  421 


Interest  i  1  the  tenement  house  question  in  Boston  has  not  subsided 
since  the  publication  of  Prof.  Dwight  Porter’s  inquiry  into  the  sanitary 
situation  of  certain  tenement  house  districts  in  1889.  This  investigation 
was  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  the  associated  charities,  and  was 
thoroughly  well  carried  out.  Later  has  followed  a  statistical  inquiry 
made  by  the  Massachusetts  bureau  of  statistics  of  labor,  directed  by 
Mr.  Horace  G.  Wadlin,  into  every  house  classified  as  a  tenement  house. 
The  subjoined  table  gives  a  summary  of  this  interesting  inquiry: 

SANITARY  CONDITION  OF  TENEMENTS  IN  TENEMENT  HOOSES  IN  BOSTON. 


[From  Twenty-third  Annual  Report  of  tho  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  Labor.] 


Inside. 

Sanitary  condi¬ 
tion. 

Light  and  air. 

Ventilation. 

Cleanliness. 

Per  cent  of— 

Per  cent  of — 

Per  cent  of— 

Per  cent  of— 

Families. 

Popular 

tion. 

Families. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Families. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Families. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Excellent . 

16. 77 

16.  61 

18.  66 

18.  44 

18.  74 

18.49 

20. 67 

19.  84 

Good . 

40.60 

40.  30 

44.  39 

44.  50 

44.  07 

44.16 

39. 33 

38.  97 

Pair . 

30.  87 

31.02 

28.58 

28.  68 

28.80 

28. 94 

28.44 

28.  89 

Poor . 

9.10 

9.33 

6.  56 

6.61 

6.  79 

6.  86 

9. 15 

9.68 

Bad . 

2.  66 

2.74 

1.81 

1. 77 

1. 60 

1. 55 

2.41 

2.62 

Inquiry  into  the  sanitary  condition  of  tenements  for  the  whole  city 
showed  that  those  residing  in  tenement  houses  classified  as  excellent, 
good,  and  fair,  as  regards  outside  sanitary  condition,  constituted  88.24 
per  cent  of  all  families  residing  in  rented  tenements,  and  87.93  percent 
of  the  entire  population  found  in  rented  tenements  of  the  city.  The 
aggregate  represented  by  these  figures  is  273,783  persons. 

It  was  found  that  there  were  8,426  families,  numbering  37,613  persons, 
in  tenements  having  poor  or  bad  outside  sanitary  conditions.  These 
families  constituted  11.76  per  cent  of  all  families  and  12.07  per  cent  of 
the  total  population  found  in  rented  tenements.  In  one  ward  of  the 
city  one-fourth  of  all  the  population  resided  in  tenements  which  had  bad 
outside  and  inside  sanitary  conditions.  In  two  other  wards  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  residences  presented  bad  outside  sanitary  conditions,  and 
on  the  average  more  than  one-fifth  presented  bad  inside  sanitary  condi¬ 
tions.  The  significance  of  these  figures  may  be  more  readily  appre¬ 
ciated  when  it  is  understood  that  more  than  three-fourtlis  of  the  total 
population  of  these  three  wards  reside  in  tenement  houses. 

The  efforts  of  those  most  interested  in  sanitary  reform  in  Boston  are 
now  being  directed  toward  securing  a  law  which  will  permit  expropria¬ 
tion  of  individual  houses  or  areas  for  sanitary  purposes;  in  other  words, 
such  powers  in  relation  to  public  health  as  are  enjoyed  under  Lnglish 
acts.  This  is  beyond  all  question  a  necessity  for  grappling  successfully 
with  the  tenement  house  evil. 

There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  working  people  ot  all  classes,  except  the 
very  lowest  and  most  degraded  (and  these  can  not  be  called  working 
people,  for  they  work  only  as  a  last  necessity),  appreciate  good  accom- 


422  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

modation  and  are  willing  to  pay  for  it.  The  punctuality  with  which 
rents  are  paid  leads  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  to  believe  that  people  in 
good  rooms  are  anxious  to  keep  them,  and  that  there  is  a  growing 
desire  for  comfortable  homes.  He  states  that,  with  a  rent  roll  amount¬ 
ing  to  about  £80,000  ($389,320)  a  year,  his  company  loses  practically 
nothing.  Overcrowding  and  living  in  filthy  surroundings  are  some¬ 
times  represented  to  be  matters  of  habit  or  preference  with  certain 
nationalities.  The  almost  universal  testimony  of  all  who  have  seriously 
tried  to  improve  the  environments  of  city  dwellers  goes  far  toward 
proving  the  reverse  to  be  true. 

Economists  are  agreed  that  20  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  head 
of  the  family  ought  to  be  the  maximum  expenditure  for  rent  in  cities. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  rents  paid  by  the  working  people  in  the 
countries  which  have  been  included  in  this  investigation,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  cities,  consume  too  large  a  proportion  of  the  wages. 

A  recent  inquiry,  covering  the  working  population  of  the  city  of 
Brussels,  ( a )  showed  that  the  average  rent  of  a  room  was  11.68  francs 
($2.25)  per  month,  while  the  average  wage  was  3.14  francs  (61  cents) 
per  day.  Of  the  working  class  families  living  in  Brussels  2.54  per  cent 
occupied  an  entire  house,  7.11  per  cent  lived  in  tenements  containing 
three  rooms  and  more,  41.81  per  cent  in  tenements  of  two  rooms,  36.18 
per  cent  in  single  rooms,  11.33  per  cent  in  single  garret  rooms,  and  1.03 
per  cent  in  single  cellar  rooms.  It  is  impossible  to  compute  exactly  the 
proportion  of  rent  to  income  of  the  head  of  the  family  for  all  classes 
from  the  figures  above  quoted,  as  the  number  of  rooms  in  the  first  two 
classes  of  tenements  is  not  known.  There  is  good  ground,  however, 
for  the  belief  that  a  fair  economic  limit  is  surpassed. 

“In  Bordeaux,”  says  M.  Louis  Champion,  “the  rents  often  absorb 
25,  30,  and  sometimes  35  and  40  per  cent  of  the  family  resources.”  He 
might  have  added  that  Bordeaux  is  not  an  exception.  Mr.  Marchant 
Williams,  inspector  of  schools  in  London,  gives, from  personal  observa¬ 
tion  in  the  parishes  of  Clerkenwell,  Saint  Luke’s,  Saint  Giles’,  Mary- 
lebone,  and  other  poor  quarters  of  London,  the  following  statistics 
showing  the  relation  between  rent  and  income.  He  finds  that  42  per 
cent  of  the  poor  population  pay  from  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  their 
earnings  in  rent,  46  per  cent  from  one-fourth  to  one-half,  and  only  12 
per  cent  pay  less  than  one-fifth.  The  figures  cover  over  1,000  dwellings 
chosen  at  random  in  different  poor  quarters  of  London.  Among  them 
3s.  10|d.  (95  cents)  is  the  average  weekly  rent  for  one  room,  6s.  ($1.46) 
for  two  rooms,  and  7s.  5^d.  ($1.81)  for  three-room  tenements. 

A  report  from  Vienna,  published  a  few  years  ago,  stated  that  the 
annual  rent  of  houses  in  the  best  streets  of  the  Austrian  capital 
brought  100  florins  ($34.10)  per  square  klafter  (36  square  feet)  for  five 
stories,  or  20  florins  ($6.82)  per  36  square  feet  of  living  room.  In  the 
suburbs,  however,  a  dwelling  composed  of  one  room  and  a  kitchen, 


a  Enqufite  sur  les  Habitations  OuvriSres  en  1890:  Rapport  pr6sent<5  au  Comity  de 
Patronage  de  la  Ville  de  Bruxelles,  par  Ch.  Lagasse  et  Cli.  De  Quaker. 


CHAPTER  XII. - ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  423 

occupying  an  area  of  about  7  square  klafters  (252  square  feet),  brought 
a  monthly  rent  of  from  12  to  15  florins  ($4.09  to  $5.12),  that  is  to  say, 
from  about  21  to  25  florins  ($7.16  to  $8.53)  per  square  klafter  (36  square 
feet)  per  annum.  Still  dearer  were  the  smallest  lodgings,  composed 
of  a  single  room,  where  the  yearly  rent  amounted,  on  the  average,  to 
from  24  to  27  florins  ($8.18  to  $9.21). 

The  rental  of  a  tenement  in  Berlin  consisting  of  one  room  and  a 
kitchen  is,  on  the  average,  from  220  to  240  marks  ($52.36  to  $57.12)  a 
year,  according  to  Herr  Valentin  Weisbach.  This  makes  the  expendi¬ 
ture  so  high  in  proportion  to  wages  that  large  numbers  of  families  are 
obliged  to  take  lodgers.  Statistical  tables  for  Leipsic  show  that  rents 
for  the  poorest  class  of  tenants  absorb  about  33  per  cent  of  the  income. 
Figures  for  Westphalian  manufacturing  cities  show  a  proportion  of  25 
per  cent,  for  the  industrial  cities  of  Saxony  and  upper  Silesia  as  high 
as  40  per  cent,  in  Munich  and  Dresden  from  25  to  33  per  cent,  and  in 
Frankfort  on  the  Main  over  33  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  unskilled 
laborers. 

The  unfortunate  part  of  it  is  that  these  relatively  high  priced  dwell¬ 
ings  are  often  neither  healthy,  comfortable,  nor  well  situated.  If  people 
are  put  into  healthier  houses  they  will  be  able  to  pay  larger  rents. 
Some  years  ago  an  inquiry  made  by  the  sanitary  authorities  in  the 
very  poorest  parts  of  London  disclosed  the  fact  that,  upon  the  lowest 
average,  every  workingman  lost  about  twenty  working  days  in  the  year 
from  sheer  exhaustion.  Putting  the  value  of  his  labor  at  a  low  figure, 
a  good  sized  additional  sum  would  have  been  available  for  the  rent  bill 
had  exhaustion  not  occurred.  The  economic  value  of  sanitary  reform 
has  never  been  fnlly  appreciated.  The  loss  to  any  nation  by  allowing 
insanitary  conditions  to  prevail  is  simply  tremendous.  It  is  likewise 
twofold.  There  is  in  the  first  place  a  great  waste  of  productive  power 
which  might  otherwise  have  been  utilized,  and  secondly  there  is  the 
expense  of  maintenance  of  hospitals  and  pauper  institutions,  a  large 
number  of  the  inmates  of  which  are  recruited  through  sickness  caused 
by  unhealthy  living  environment. 

The  natural  and  logical  sequence  of  high  rents  is  overcrowding.  This 
is  not  only  unfortunate  from  the  sanitary  point  of  view  but  it  is  also 
fearfully  degrading  to  morals.  Its  effects  in  this  respect  are  treated 
more  fully  in  considering  certain  ethical  features  at  the  close  of  the 
present  chapter.  Overcrowding  is  not  usually  the  fault  of  landlords. 
Indeed,  except  in  the  case  of  sweating  dens  situated  in  dilapidated 
buildings,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  too  great  congestion  within  dwell¬ 
ings  is  against  the  interest  of  the  owner.  The  Presbytery  Commission 
of  Glasgow  felt  bound  in  their  report  to  assert  that,  as  regards  over¬ 
crowding  in  that  city,  they  believed  landlords  to  be  absolutely  blameless. 

There  are  many  causes  for  the  high  rents  which  laboring  people 
living  in  cities  have  to  pay.  The  price  of  land  is  a  factor  of  prime 
importance.  The  necessities  of  the  workingman,  especially  the  casual 
laborer,  lead  him  to  live  near  his  work,  and  building  ground  in  such 


424  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


localities  is  naturally  very  dear  because  of  contiguity  to  business  quar¬ 
ters.  The  advance  in  the  price  of  land  has  everywhere  been  much 
greater  than  the  rise  in  wages;  consequently  the  sums  which  it  would 
be  necessary  to  charge  for  rent  if  really  sanitary  dwellings  were  con¬ 
structed,  this  class,  especially,  could  not  afford  to  pay.  The  best  that 
can  be  done  for  the  casual  worker  in  these  circumstances  is  to  house 
him  in  renovated  property  until  the  advance  of  business  shall  render 
the  surrender  of  his  home  a  necessity.  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  admits 
that  without  the  sympathy  of  private  landlords,  such  as  the  Duke  of 
Westminster,  the  Marquis  of  Northampton,  the  Earl  of  Cadogan,  the 
Baroness  Burdett-Coutts,  and  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners,  who 
furnished  land  at  low  ground  rents,  buildings  erected  in  certain  neigh¬ 
borhoods  could  not  have  been  made  to  pay.  Three  cents  and  4  cents 
per  square  foot  have  been  paid  for  such  building  sites  on  long  leases. 

Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  believes  that  leasing  is  more  profitable  than 
buying  for  a  trading  company,  because  the  money  invested  in  the  build¬ 
ings  will  yield  5  to  6  per  cent  and  allow  a  margin  for  redemption  pur¬ 
poses.  “  You  can  not  buy  land,”  he  says,  speaking  of  central  London, 
“to  pay  much  more  than  3  per  cent  or  3£  per  cent,  and  if  you  have  to 
invest  a  large  sum  at  that  percentage  you  have  to  earn  more  to  pull  it 
tip  to  5  per  cent.”  The  practice  of  building  tenements  on  leasehold 
property  has  not  been  resorted  to  in  this  country. 

Herr  Weisbach  puts  down  the  value  of  building  land  in  the  outskirts 
of  Berlin  at  from  28  to  40  marks  ($6.66  to  $9.52)  per  square  meter  (10.764 
square  feet).  The  burgomaster  of  Brussels  asserts  that  land,  after 
demolition  of  insanitary  dwellings,  in  Brussels,  would  cost  50  francs 
($9.65)  per  square  meter  (10.764  square  feet).  In  some  English  cities 
expropriated  ground  has  cost  much  more. 

Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  ex-city  engineer  of  Liverpool,  published,  a 
short  time  ago,  in  his  report  on  Rehousing  of  the  Artisan  and  Laboring 
Classes,  an  interesting  table  showing  the  maximum  outlay  on  land  and 
buildings  per  room  that  will  yield  certain  specified  percentages  at  given 
rentals.  It  is  here  reproduced,  because  of  the  undoubted  competency 
of  its  author  and  with  the  hope  that  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  persons 
inclined  to  attempt  the  improvement  of  Avorkingmen’s  homes: 

MAXIMUM  OUTLAY  PER  ROOM  THAT  AT  A  GIVEN  RENT  WILL  YIELD  A  GIVEN 

RATE  PER  CENT  PER  ANNUM. 

[lu  all  cases  30  per  cent  Las  been  deducted  from  the  gross  rental  for  taxes,  repairs,  nnoccupiod 
lodgings,  etc.,  to  arrive  at  the  net  rent  upon  which  the  percentage  has  been  calculated.] 


Maximum  outlay  per  room  that  will  yield  each  year — 


Gross  rent  per  room 
per  week. 

per 

cent. 

6J 

per 

cent. 

6 

per 

cent. 

5J 

per 

cent. 

54 

per 

cent. 

5J 

per 

cent. 

5 

per 

cent. 

41 

per 

cent. 

per 

cent. 

4* 

per 

cent. 

4 

per 

cent. 

3} 

per 

cent. 

3i 

per 

cent. 

per 

cent. 

3 

per 

cent. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Is . . 

28 

29 

30 

31 

33 

34 

36 

38 

40 

43 

45 

48 

52 

56 

60 

Is.  3d . 

35 

30 

37 

39 

41 

43 

45 

47 

50 

53 

56 

60 

65 

70 

75 

Is.  6d . 

42 

43 

45 

47 

49 

51 

54 

57 

60 

64 

G8 

72 

78 

84 

90 

Is.  9d . 

49 

51 

53 

55 

57 

60 

63 

67 

70 

74 

79 

84 

91 

97 

106 

2s . 

5G 

58 

60 

63 

66 

69 

72 

76 

80 

85 

91 

97 

104 

112 

121 

CHAPTER  XII. —  ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  425 

The  most  promising  means  of  overcoming  the  cardinal  difficulty  of 
securing  suitable  sites  for  the  erection  of  workingmen’s  dwellings,  for 
both  higher  paid  and  poorly  remunerated  tenants,  is  in  the  development 
of  rapid  transit  facilities.  Only  in  this  way  can  there  be  an  emptying 
of  congested  districts,  and  whole  suburban  districts  brought  into 
accessibility.  The  superabundance  of  accommodation  which  would  be 
created  would  probably  lower  rents,  and  an  important  influence  would 
also  be  exercised  in  causing  those  who  can  afford  to  pay  good  prices  to 
go  to  the  suburbs.  No  proper  estimate  can  yet  be  given  of  the  ethical 
contribution  to  civilization  made  by  rapid  transit  lines. 

Electric  transportation  will  powerfully  influence  the  housing  prob¬ 
lem,  not  merely  by  furnishing  an  easy  means  of  transportation,  but  by 
lowering  the  value  of  city  property  along  certain  routes  of  travel.  It 
is  a  common  thing  now  to  hear  of  well-to-do  people  moving  to  the  sub¬ 
urbs  because  it  is  so  easy  to  come  to  toxvn  and  because  of  the  dangers 
to  their  children  of  rapidly  moving  cars  and  the  annoyance  caused  by 
continual  gong  ringing  at  street  corners.  This  is  especially  true  along 
all  night  lines.  The  exodus  of  people  so  minded  will  leave  a  greater 
available  area  for  those  who  remain.  Hitherto  workingmen  who  have 
been  obliged  to  live  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city  were  obliged  to  suffer 
more  or  less  inconvenience  and  often  had  to  pay  dearly  for  the  privi¬ 
lege. 

In  the  United  States  the  only  measure  looking  to  the  provision  of 
workingmen’s  trains  is  that  which  is  incorporated  in  the  public  statutes 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  1882,  chapter  112,  section  183. 
The  paragraph  reads  as  follows : 

Every  railroad  corporation  whose  railroad  runs  out  from  Boston  shall 
furnish  on  each  week  day  a  morning  train  in  and  an  evening  train  out  for 
distances  not  exceeding  fifteen  miles,  or  suitable  cars  attached  to  other 
trains,  and  reaching  and  leaving  Boston  at  about  six  o’clock  in  the  lore- 
noon  and  afternoon,  or  at  such  hours  as  may  be  fixed  by  the  board; 
and  for  such  trains  shall  furnish  yearly  season  tickets  at  a  rate  not 
exceeding  three  dollars  per  mile  per  year  good  once  a  day  each  way  for 
six  days  in  a  week,  and  quarterly  tickets  not  exceeding  one  dollar  per 
quarter  per  mile;  provided,  that  two  hundred  or  more  persons  make 
application  therefor. 

In  February,  1893,  Sir  Blundell  Maple  introduced  into  the  House  of 
Commons  the  cheap  trains  (London)  bill.  This  bill,  which  was  intended 
to  extend  the  cheap  trains  act  of  1883,  proposed  the  issue  of  daily 
tickets  at  zone  tariffs  for  the  double  journey.  The  public  health  and 
housing  committee  were  unable  to  approve  the  system  ol  zone  tariffs 
proposed,  and  reported  to  the  London  county  council  accordingly,  at 
the  same  time  reiterating  the  recommendations  made  in  previous  reports 
and  submitting  a  model  zone  system  designed  to  be  applicable  to  all 
present  and  future  metropolitan  railways,  the  object  being  to  encourage 
the  migration  of  the  working  classes  as  far  into  the  country  as  possible. 
The  limit  of  distance  proposed  was  20  miles,  apportioned  in  three 
zones,  with  a  resulting  tariff"  equivalent  to  a  mean  rate  of  one-fifth  of 


426  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


a  penny  a  mile,  against  the  present  average  mean  rate  of  all  the  thirteen 
companies  of  about  one-third  of  a  penny. 

The  first  provision  for  workingmen’s  trains  in  London  was  made  in 
the  metropolitan  act  of  18G1 ;  but  before  the  cheap  trains  act  of  1883, 
furnishing  workingmen’s  trains  was  not  made  compulsory  to  railways 
centering  in  the  metropolis.  There  has  not  been  the  same  advance  in 
street  car  service  in  London  as  has  characterized  the  last  few  years 
in  this  country.  Indeed,  the  conditions  are  such  that  a  widespread 
development  is  scarcely  feasible.  Hence  it  is  that  the  London  county 
council  still  occupies  itself  with  the  question  of  workingmen’s  trains. 

On  June  28,  1893,  a  conference  of  members  of  the  London  county 
council  and  representatives  from  all  the  railways  concerned  was  held 
at  the  board  of  trade,  and  was  presided  over  by  Sir  Courtenay  Boyle, 
the  secretary  of  the  board.  The  London  county  council  made  the  fol¬ 
lowing  suggestions  in  relation  to  workingmen’s  trains: 

1.  That  workmen’s  tickets  be  made  available  for  return  by  any  train 
carrying  third-class  passengers. 

2.  That  the  issue  of  quarterly  or  monthly  third-class  tickets  be 
extended  to  all  stations  within  the  limit  of  the  cheap  train  service. 

3.  That  the  conditions  as  to  the  issue  of  workmen’s  tickets,  the  fares, 
kind  of  tickets  supplied,  and  train  by  which  available,  be  published 
not  only  in  the  book  of  time-tables  of  each  company,  but  be  conspicu¬ 
ously  advertised  by  means  of  posters  at  all  stations  served  by  work¬ 
men’s  trains. 

4.  That,  except  in  the  case  of  quarterly  or  monthly  third-class  tickets, 
all  workmen’s  tickets  be  daily  ones. 

5.  That  all  third-class  trains,  whether  on  main  or  branch  lines,  arriv¬ 
ing  at  the  London  termini  up  to  8  a.  m.  be  workmen’s  trains  through¬ 
out  the  area  of  the  cheap  train  service. 

6.  That  all  third-class  trains  from  London  termini  up  to  7.30  a.  m. 
be  also  workmen’s  trains  throughout  the  same  area. 

7.  That  when  insufficient  third-class  accommodation  is  provided  in  a 
workmen’s  train  the  holder  of  a  workman’s  ticket  be  allowed  to  travel 
by  a  superior  class  without  extra  charge. 

8.  That  the  model  zone  system  suggested  in  the  committee’s  report  is 
one  worthy  of  adoption,  and  which  might  fairly  be  made  applicable  to 
all  future  as  well  as  present  metropolitan  railway  undertakings. 

9.  That  superior  cheap  trains  at  half  fares  should  be  run  to  London 
termini  by  all  metropolitan  railways  from  all  stations  within  the  area 
of  the  cheap  train  service  from  7  to  9  a.  m.  without  restriction  as  to  time 
of  return. 

Regarding  the  first  suggestion,  the  companies  agreed  that  work¬ 
men’s  tickets  should  be  available  for  return  after  noon  instead  of  only 
after  4  o’clock.  The  second  suggestion  was  withdrawn  from  discussion 
as  applying  to  a  class  beyond  that  for  which  workmen’s  trains  were 
intended.  The  companies  agreed  to  Nos.  3  and  4.  No.  5  was  agreed  to 
by  some  but  not  by  all  of  the  companies.  As  the  issue  raised  by  Nos. 
G  and  7  was  a  small  one,  and  the  companies  could  not  agree,  these  sug¬ 
gestions  were  withdrawn.  The  eighth  suggestion  was  made  with  the 
object  of  doing  away  with  the  inequality  of  charges  on  the  different 


CHAPTER  XII. - ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  427 

lines,  aud  of  remedying  the  unequal  charge  per  mile.  It  was  shown 
that  the  same  company  charges  in  some  instances  five  times  as  much 
per  mile  for  short  distances  as  it  does  for  longer  journeys.  Although 
the  companies  did  not  consider  the  suggestion  practical,  they  intimated 
readiness  to  consider  the  system  of  grouping  fares  for  varying  distances 
up  to  12  miles  from  the  terminus  of  each  railway.  The  discussion  of 
the  matter  was  finally  postponed  for  a  future  conference.  Up  to  April 
16,  1894,  no  adjustment  had  been  reached. 

The  great  drawback  in  English  practices  seems  to  have  been  that 
the  season  ticket  has  not  been  fully  extended  to  include  third-class  pas¬ 
sengers  on  the  same  favorable  basis  as  that  accorded  to  first-class  sea¬ 
son  ticket  holders.  Under  present  arrangements  on  many  railroads 
unless  the  third-class  passenger  is  in  a  position  to  avail  himself  of 
workingmen’s  trains  he  pays  at  the  end  of  the  year  as  much  as  a  per¬ 
son  holding  a  first  class  season  ticket.  In  the  case  of  Roel  Park, 
one  of  the  suburban  settlements  of  the  Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  Gen¬ 
eral  Dwellings  Company,  unless  a  workingman  is  willing  to  leave 
his  home  before  5  a.  m.  he  must  pay  4s.  (97  cents)  weekly  railway  fare. 
This  is  33  per  cent  more  than  the  average  weekly  cost  of  a  first-class 
season  ticket.  Some  railways,  such  as  the  Midland,  for  example,  have 
adopted  a  third-class  season  ticket  entitling  the  holder  to  travel  on  any 
train.  The  cost  per  working  day  to  a  holder  is  a  little  under  3d.  (6 
cents)  for  a  round  trip  of  8  miles. 

Belgium  offers  excellent  facilities  in  the  wray  of  transportation  to 
working  people.  Railways  and  tramways  are  found  everywhere,  and 
laborers  enjoy  such  cheap  rates  that  many  live  as  far  away  as  Ghent 
and  Antwerp  and  go  to  Brussels  to  perform  their  daily  work.  W  ork- 
men  living  in  the  farthest  outskirts,  when  employed  in  Brussels,  pay 
from  1.20  to  1.50  francs  (23  to  29  cents)  per  week  railway  fare.  This  is 
4  to  5  cents  daily  for  the  return  journey. 

Paris  affords  no  special  facilities  for  transporting  workingmen.  There 
are  no  underground  railways,  and  elevated  structures  are  opposed  on 
the  ground  that  the  beautiful  appearance  of  the  city  would  be  spoiled. 
Three  of  the  tramway  lines  of  Paris  are  obliged  by  the  municipal  coun¬ 
cil  to  run  early  cars  at  15  centimes  (3  cents)  fare. 

Another  cause  of  high  rents  is  the  increased  cost  of  building.  This 
seems  to  have  been  common  to  both  continents.  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow 
says  that  the  first  block  which  he  himself  built  (about  18(50)  cost  £32 
($155.73)  per  room.  In  1885  his  company  was  paying  £50  ($243.33)  per 
room.  All  expenses  except  the  price  of  land  were  included.  The 
advance  in  labor  was  largely  responsible  for  the  enhanced  cost.  This 
experience  is  singularly  corroborated  by  Mr.  Alfred  T.  White,  one  of 
the  owners  of  the  well  known  model  tenements  in  Brooklyn.  He  esti¬ 
mates  that  the  cost  of  building  has  advanced  40  per  cent  in  fifteen  years, 
due  almost  wholly  to  increased  price  for  labor. 

Abroad,  taxation  seems  to  fall  unfavorably  on  city  dwellings  of  the 
poor.  The  property  tax,  which  has  to  be  paid  on  gross  value  instead 


428  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

of  divisible  profits  of  bousing  companies,  is  particularly  instanced  by 
Sir  Sydney  Waterlow. 

Mr.  John  Honey  man,  a  Scotch  authority,  shows  that  the  incidence  of 
taxation  is  heaviest  upon  the  lower  class  of  rentals.  Taking  Glasgow 
as  an  example,  the  municipal,  parochial,  and  school  rates,  property  tax, 
and  house  duties,  together,  amount  to  about  5s.  3d.  ($1.28)  per  £1  ($4.87) 
of  rental.  While  part  of  these  are  disbursed  by  the  landlords,  they  are 
all  paid  by  the  tenant,  part  directly  and  part  through  the  landlords  in 
the  shape  of  higher  rents.  Mr.  Houeyman  calculates  that  67  per  cent 
of  the  total  taxes  paid  on  dwellings,  including  the  hotels,  in  Glasgow, 
annually  comes  out  of  the  pockets  of  working  people.  In  London  rates 
and  taxes  are  currently  reported  to  amount  to  about  25  per  cent  of  the 
rental.  The  owners  of  ground  rents  pay  nothing  except  to  the  income 
tax.  In  Scotland  the  proprietary  class  pays  also  half  the  rates  (a). 
In  Berlin  no  one  who  pays  a  lower  rent  than  200  marks  ($47.60)  a  year 
is  assessed  on  his  rental.  Above  this  amount  he  pays  on  a  graduated 
scale,  beginning  at  2  per  cent  and  rising  to  6£  per  cent  when  the  rent 
exceeds  1,000  marks  ($238)  a  year.  There  is  also  a  graduated  income 
tax  on  incomes,  beginning  with  660  marks  ($157.08)  per  annum. 

The  tax  on  doors  and  windows  in  France  encourages  poor  provision 
of  light  and  air  in  workingmen’s  dwellings.  Sewerage  and  water  rates 
are  also  high,  so  that  there  is  again  a  discouragement  to  cleanliness 
and  proper  hygienic  surroundings. 

The  system  of  selling  single  apartments  in  buildings  is  quite  common 
in  certain  parts  of  Scotland,  notably  in  Dundee.  The  method  is  usually 
this:  An  enterprising  person  takes  land  in  feu,  which  means  leasing  it 
from  the  landlord  on  a  perpetual  lease,  upon  payment  of  a  certain  rental 
known  as  a  ground  annual,  and  builds  tenement  houses  on  it  with  a  view 
to  selling  them  in  individual  tenements.  The  investor,  if  a  person  of 
small  means,  need  only  have  enough  to  begin  operations.  The  land¬ 
lord  advances  the  rest  necessary  for  completing  the  building,  at  4  per 
cent.  The  borrower  can  either  pay  this  by  annual  installments  during 
twenty-two  years  or,  all  at  once,  by  giving  three  months’  notice. 
When  the  building  is  completed  he  sells  the  single  apartments  and 
realizes  a  good  iirofit.  in  the  case  of  such  buildings  the  roof  is 
common  property,  to  be  kept  in  repair  by  the  owners.  Persons  on  the 
first  floor  keep  the  first  staircase  in  order,  those  on  the  second  floor  the 
second  staircase,  and  so  on. 

The  system  of  selling  single  apartments  in  buildings  on  the  “  ground 
annual”  and  “feu”  system  sometimes  results  in  serious  complications, 
especially  when  buildings  have  to  be  torn  down  or  repaired.  There 
are  certain  other  disadvantages.  It  is  often  made  the  means  by  which 
dishonest  landlords  defraud  builders  and  suppliers  of  materials.  Sev¬ 
eral  years  ago  Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  formed  a  company  for  the  purpose 
of  selling  single  tenements  in  tenement  buildings  in  London,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  much  has  yet  been  done. 


a  Ratos  moan  local  taxes  as  distinct  from  national  taxes. 


CHAPTER  XII. — ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  429 


Does  model  housing  pay?  The  best  answer  to  this  question  is  the 
following  table  giving  the  dividends  paid  by  companies  engaged  in  the 
work.  It  is  very  important  to  draw  a  distinction  regarding  the  char¬ 
acter  of  these  different  organizations.  In  the  table  they  are  divided 
into  commercial,  semiphilantliropic  (involving  the  limitation  of  divi¬ 
dends  to  a  moderate  figure),  philanthropic  (where  capital  is  derived  from 
bequests  or  gilts,  and  where  the  income  is  expended  in  furtherance  of 
the  work),  municipal  (where  the  local  governing  body  is  the  landlord), 
and  manufacturing  corporations.  The  latter  must  be  considered  quite 
separate,  because  there  is  always  an  intangible  dividend  in  the  way  of 
increased  assiduity  or  greater  stability  of  labor,  which  the  employer 
certainly  deems  a  sufficient  commercial  remuneration  or  he  would  not 
engage  in  the  work.  There  is  between  the  employer  housing  his  work¬ 
ingmen  a  reciprocity  of  interest  which  does  not  at  all  exist  in  the  ordi¬ 
nary  relations  of  landlord  and  tenant. 

Lord  Shaftesbury  insists  over  and  over  again  that  persons  investing 
in  improved  housing  of  the  poor  can  make  easily  from  4  to 4£  percent. 
Sir  Sydney  Waterlow  is  just  as  convinced  that  5  per  cent  may  be  forth¬ 
coming,  and  he  has  justified  his  faith  by  his  works  through  along  series 
of  years. 

Fixing  a  fair  rate  of  dividends  for  housing  agencies  is  really  a  diffi¬ 
cult  matter.  In  some  countries  0  per  cent  might  be  deemed  the  proper 
amount,  in  others  5  per  cent,  in  some  again  4  per  cent,  and  even  3 
or  3£  per  cent  might,  in  a  few  instances,  be  considered  not  too  low  a 
figure.  The  value  of  money  lluctuates  at  different  times,  but  when  one 
is  speaking  of  a  fair  rate  one  must  always  consider  the  security  of  the 
investment.  It  is  scarcely  fair  to  model  houses  to  compare  financial 
results  as  far  as  they  are  concerned  with  ordinary  dwelling  house  prop¬ 
erty.  Four  per  cent  on  houses  well  built  and  well  taken  care  of  is  far 
better  than  6  per  cent  on  flimsy  constructions  inhabited  by  careless  or 
destructive  tenants.  The  model  dwellings,  being  more  firmly  built, 
always  last  longer,  so  that  a  smaller  dividend  may  indicate  a  larger  real 
profit.  The  following  table  shows  the  dividends  paid  and  the  per  cent 
of  net  profit  earned  by  the  various  companies  for  the  last  year  for  which 
such  returns  were  available: 


DIVIDENDS  AND  NET  PROFITS  OF  MODEL  HOUSING  COMPANIES. 


Company. 


UNITED  STATE8. 

Improved  Dwellings  Company,  Brooklyn, 
New  York. 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York 
city. 

Tenement  House  Building  Company,  New 
York  city. 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Bos¬ 
ton,  Massachusetts. 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston, 
Massachusetts. 


Character  of  com¬ 
pany. 

Dividends  paid. 

Per  cent 
of  net 
profit  for 
year. 

Year 
ending — 

Per  cent. 

1892 

(a) 

Commercial . 

1893 

5 

b  6 

Semiphilanthropic. . 

Deo.  31, 1891 

4 

Commercial . 

Dec.  30,1893 

0 

9.90 

Semiphilanthropic. . 

Dec.  31,1893 

4 

6J  to  5J 

a  First  buildings  constructed,  10  per  cent;  new  building,  5  to  6  per  cent. 


b  Average. 


430  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR, 


DIVIDENDS  AND  NET  PEOEITS  OE  MODEL  HOUSING  COMPANIES-Continued. 


Company. 


Character  of  com¬ 
pany. 


Dividends  paid. 


Year 
ending — 


Per  cent. 


Per  cent 
of  net 
profit  for 
year. 


united  states — concluded. 


S.  D.  "Warren  and  Company,  Cumberland 
Mills,  Maine. 

Willimantio  Linen  Company,  Willimantic, 
Connecticut. 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell, 
Massachusetts. 


Manufacturing 

Manufacturing 

Manufacturing 


1892 

1892 

1892 


6 

ab  3 
«  2.  3 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company, 
London. 

Artisans’,  Laborers’ and  General  Dwellings 
Company,  Loudon. 

Metropolitan  Association  for  Improving  the 
Dwellings  of  the  Industrious  Classes, 
London. 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany,  London. 

East  End  Dwellings  Company,  London . 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  London . 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London . 

Guinness  Trust,  London . 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool: 

Saint  Martin’s  Cottages . 

J  uvenal  Dwellings . 

Victoria  .Square  Dwellings . 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company, 
Glasgow. 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow . 

Rosemount  Association  for  Providin  g  Dwell¬ 
ings  for  Working  People,  Edinburgh. 
Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the 
Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edinburgh. 
Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Hudders¬ 
field. 

FRANCE. 

Healthy  Dwellings  Company,  Marseilles . 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen . 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Lyons . 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  of 
Passy-Auteuil,  Paris. 

Havre  Workingmen's  Dwellings  Company, 
Havre. 

The  Cottage,  Lyons . 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen... 

M.  Menier,  Noisiel . 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin . 

Northern  Railway,  Bourget . 

M.  Fanien,  Lillers . 

BELGIUM. 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp . 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre . 

Brussels  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany,  Brussels. 

Verviers  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany,  Verviers. 


GERMANY. 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on 
the  Main. 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin.. . . 
Meyer's  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic. 
Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden.. 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden . 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover . 

Berlin  Building  Association,  Berlin . 

Barmen  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company, 
Barmen. 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen- 
Gladbach. 


Commercial. 

Commercial. 

Commercial. 


Semiphilanthropio . 


Commercial..., 
Commercial 
Philanthropic 
Philanthropic  , 


Municipal . 

Municipal . 

Municipal . 

Semiphilanthropio . 


Municipal .. 
Commercial. 
Commercial 
Municipal .. 


Semiphilanthropio. 

Commercial . 

Semiphilanthropio. . 
Semiphilanthropio 


Commercial. 


Commercial . 

Commercial . 

Manufacturing . 

Mining . 

Railway . 

Manufacturing . 


Philanthropic . 

Philanthropic . 

Semiphilan  thropio . 


Commercial. 


Semiphilanthropio . . 


Semip  hilan  thropio . . 
Philanthropic  .... 

Commercial . 

Semiphilanthropio 

Commercial . 

Commercial . 

Commercial . 


Semiphilan  tnropio . 


Dec.  31, 1893 
Dec.  31,1893 
Mar.  31, 1893 

Deo.  31, 1893 

Dec.  31,1891 
Sept.  29, 1893 

1RQ3 

Dec.  31,1893 

1893 

1893 

1893 

June  30, 1893 

May  31, 1893 
1893 
1893 

Mar.  31, 1892 


Sept.  30, 1891 
Dec.  31, 1890 
Dec.  31,1891 


1891 

Dec.  31,  1891 
Dec.  31,  1890 


1891 

1889 


Dec.  31,  1893 

Oct.  31,  1893 
1893 

Mar.  31, 1894 


Dec.  31, 1891 

. 1891 

Dec.  31, 1891 


5 

6 
<1 


21 


6 

a  3J 


31 

1.3 

4 

a  11  to  21 

a4 

5 
3 


31 

4 


4 

31 

4 

a  5 
4 

41 


8+ 


61 


a  31  to  31 
3 

2.3 
3.7 
2. 6- 
3.85 

(  3.2 

{  3.5 

(  4.6 


a  4 


3. 89 
1.4 


8 

all 
ab  3 
a  6  21 
a  4 


a41to5! 


4.24 


3 

4.7 
a  6  5. 6 
a  41 


a  3.65 

«4| 


a  Average. 


b  Gross. 


o  Average,  without  deducting  repair*. 


CHAPTER  XII. - ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  431 


DIVIDENDS  AND  NET  PROFITS  OF  MODEL  HOUSING  COMPANIES — Concluded. 


Company. 


Character  of  com¬ 
pany. 


Dividends  paid. 


Year 
ending — 


Percent. 


Per  cent 
of  net 
profit  for 
year. 


GERMANY — concluded. 


Mul  ual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the 
Warta. 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Fried¬ 
rich  sort. 

Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Com¬ 
pany,  Mulliouse. 

Friedrich  Krupp,  Essen . 

Villeroy  and  Boch,  Mettlach . 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg . 

DENMARK. 

Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Copen¬ 
hagen. 

HOLLAND. 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Labor¬ 
ers’  Dwellings,  Amsterdam. 

SWEDEN. 

Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm... 

Stockholm  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company, 
Stockholm. 

Gothenburg  Savings  Bank,  Gothenburg . 

Workingmen’s  Buildings  Society,  Gothen¬ 
burg. 

Gothenburg  Company  for  the  Housing  of 
Working  People,  Gothenburg. 


Semiphilanthropic. . 

Government . 

Semiph  ilan  thropic . . 

Manufacturing . 

Manufacturing . 

Municipal . 


July  1,1892 
1891 
1888 

July  1,1891 

Dec.  31,  1892 
1891 


Commercial 


1891 


Commercial 


Commercial . 

1891 

Semiphilanthropic. . 

1891 

Semiphilanthropic.. 

1890 

Commercial . 

1890 

1  olj 


b  2 


4 


f 


2.1 

2. 58 


c3 

bo  4 


4 


5 


5 

4 


61 


4 


6 


a  Average. 


b  Nearly. 


e  Gross. 


The  Presbytery  Commission  of  Glasgow  believes  that  the  erection  of 
model  dwellings  in  that  city  is  not  as  profitable  as  it  used  to  be.  The 
cost  of  building,  value  of  land,  and  burden  of  taxation  have  risen  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  increase  in  rents.  The  price  of  land  may  be 
taken  at  £1  ($4.87)  per  yard.  The  cost  for  repairs  due  to  carelessness 
and  destructive  habits  of  tenants  amounts  to  from  25  to  30  per  cent  of 
the  rental,  at  a  low  estimate.  At  the  present  market  value  of  property 
a  dividend  of  from  4  to  5  per  cent  may  be  realized,  on  the  assumption 
that  full  rents  are  charged  and  the  property  is  fully  let.  A  large  o\\  ner 
of  property  gave  evidence  that  between  1855  and  1890  the  cost  of  build¬ 
ing  had  increased  50  per  cent,  and  that  rents  have  risen  less  than  15 
per  cent.  The  cost  of  repairs,  owing  to  the  advance  in  labor,  has 
increased  50  per  cent  and  taxation  has  increased  materially.  Ihe  sani¬ 
tary  inspector,  Mr.  Fyfe,  was  very  sanguine,  however,  that  property 
could  be  renovated  and  made  to  pay  well,  but  he  was  not  so  sure  that 
new  model  property  could.  The  commission  takes  this  view  of  the  case 
with  regard  to  renovated  property,  believing  that  an  association  could 
do  this,  because  it  could  hold  contiguous  blocks  and  could  manage 
them  more  advantageously  than  persons  owning  single  structures. 
The  tenants  would  need  to  be  selected  from  the  more  worthy  among 
the  poor. 


432  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 

There  is  a  higher  test  of  social  economic  utility  than  the  size  of  divi¬ 
dends  to  stockholders.  Such  utility  is  disclosed  by  the  well  known  fact 
that  rentals  charged  in  model  dwellings  are  almost  universally  lower 
than  those  exacted  for  fairly  similar  accommodation  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood.  The  perusal  of  the  foregoing  text  will  add  convincing  testimony 
in  support  of  this  statement. 

The  provision  of  first-class  homes  is  of  great  importance.  If  they  can 
be  provided  at  a  lower  rate  than  ordinary,  and  yet  bring  a  normal  com¬ 
mercial  return,  nothing  further  can  be  desired.  Where  model  companies 
have  not  succeeded  there  is  generally  some  good  reason  for  it.  There 
is  for  them,  undoubtedly,  iu  every  community  a  wide  sphere  of  work. 

A  factor  of  very  great  importance  in  securing  favorable  economic 
returns  is  wise  supervision.  As  in  every  other  enterprise,  good  manage¬ 
ment  is  the  most  essential  thing.  Upon  it  depends,  especially,  the  size 
of  the  repair  account,  which  often  makes  the  difference  between  success 
and  failure.  It  is  especially  important,  in  dealing  with  the  lowest 
classes  who  are  put  in  renovated  property,  that  a  bonus  for  prompt 
payment  of  rent,  sufficiently  large  to  tempt  the  tenant,  should  be 
offered.  The  experience  of  the  Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company 
and  other  associations  in  this  regard  has  been  most  satisfactory. 

Miss  Octavia  Hill  maintains  that  one  great  reason  why  model  tene¬ 
ments  sometimes  do  not  pay  is  that  they  are  built  too  expensively. 
She  says  that  they  ought  to  be  constructed  with  the  greatest  jDossible 
simplicity,  and  only  that  which  is  really  wanted  for  health  should  be 
supplied.  She  instances  particularly  the  carrying  of  water  to  separate 
lodgings  and  putting  drains  all  over  the  place.  She  says  rooms  should 
always  be  built  with  a  separate  approach,  so  that  they  may  be  let  either 
en  suite  or  singly.  These  suggestions  are  made  because  cheaper  build¬ 
ings  mean  lower  rent. 

By  making  the  outside  of  the  house  as  well  as  the  interior  plain  and 
simple,  there  will  be  little  temptation  for  tenants  of  the  better  class  to 
come  into  them.  This  is  very  important,  and  should  esi)ecially  be  con¬ 
sidered  by  agencies  who  aim  to  minister  to  the  needs  of  the  poorest. 
If  houses  contain  too  many  attractions,  particularly  too  many  conven¬ 
iences,  with  the  further  attraction  of  low  rentals,  those  who  are  parsi¬ 
monious  among  the  more  well-to-do  workers  will  unfailingly  come. 
Furthermore,  as  the  class  of  tenants  for  which  such  property  is  designed 
is  not  particularly  careful  of  house  fixtures,  it  is  a  great  deal  better  to 
give  fewer  accessories  or  conveniences,  and  hence  lower  the  repair 
account.  These  houses  are  meant  not  to  give  the  best  accommodation, 
but  to  be  utilized  as  stepping  stones  to  enable  people  to  escape  from 
degraded  surroundings  and  to  help  them  on  the  way  to  higher  and 
healthier  existences. 

Georges  Picot  very  aptly  remarks,  “The  improvement  of  dwellings  is 
the  best  guarantee  of  civilization.”  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  there 
has  been  an  improvement  in  the  housing  of  working  people  during  the 


CHAPTER  XII. - ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  433 


last  quarter  of  a  century,  but,  on  the  whole,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  this  has  been  commensurate  with  improvements  in  other 
phases  of  social  condition. 

An  exceedingly  unfavorable  ethical  element  in  existing  methods  of 
living  is  the  habitation  of  single  rooms.  Very  frequently  persons 
other  than  members  of  the  family  are  accommodated.  Lord  Shaftes¬ 
bury  remarks  that  the  effect  of  the  one-room  system  is,  physically  and 
morally,  beyond  all  description.  It  generally  leads  to  the  one-bed 
system,  where  the  herding  of  sexes  is  totally  destructive  of  all  benefits 
derived  from  education.  Statistics  showing  the  proportion  of  single¬ 
room  dwellings  in  certain  cities  have  been  given  elsewhere.  They 
represent  far  too  large  a  quota  of  the  whole.  In  German  cities,  where 
rents  are  relatively  high,  the  poorer  classes  often  find  difficulty  in 
securing  dwellings  cheap  enough  for  their  small  incomes,  and  are  there¬ 
fore  in  the  habit  of  subletting  their  rooms  to  night  lodgers.  In  Berlin 
a  law  exists  forbidding  mixing  of  sexes  in  the  same  bedrooms,  but  it  is 
only  enforced  in  extreme  cases,  partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  and 
partly  because  of  the  sympathy  of  the  police,  who  claim  that  the  state 
of  affairs  can  not  be  remedied  without  rendering  many  people  homeless. 
Inspections  are  only  made  on  rare  occasions  and  when  extreme  cases 
are  reported.  About  400  instances  a  year  come  under  police  super¬ 
vision.  The  Brussels  Committee  of  Patronage  reveals  a  startling 
record  of  promiscuity.  In  the  first  police  division  of  the  city,  among 
578  workingmen’s  families,  each  inhabiting  a  single  room,  boys  and 
girls,  youths  and  adults,  in  17  cases,  slept  in  the  same  bed.  In  the 
second  police  division  1,429  families  lived  each  in  a  single  room.  In 
196  instances  the  whole  family  occupied  a  single  bed.  In  the  third 
police  division,  out  of  401  families  each  living  in  a  single  room  where 
young  men  and  young  women  slept  under  the  same  roof,  in  77  instances 
the  whole  family  occupied  the  same  bed.  In  the  fourth  division  462 
families  lived  each  in  a  single  room,  and  in  116  instances  the  whole 
family  occupied  the  same  bed. 

It  is  an  encouraging  fact  that  the  higher  one  goes  among  the  laboring 
element,  the  less  one  finds  a  desire  to  use  things  in  common.  This  is 
probably  the  explanation  why  common  baths,  laundries,  reading  and 
club  rooms,  etc.,  do  not  find  particular  favor.  In  catering  to  this  sen¬ 
timent  certain  large  housing  companies  building  self-contained  tene¬ 
ments  have  performed  useful  and  civilizing  work.  The  lower  strata  of 
laborers  are  much  more  gregarious. 

Lord  Shaftesbury  interested  himself  practically  for  more  than  sixty 
years  in  improving  the  living  environments  of  wage-earners.  He  was 
able  to  say  that  he  was  certain  that  many  people  who  are  in  a  filthy 
and  deplorable  condition  have  been  made  so  by  tlieir  own  surroundings; 
while,  if  the  houses  were  improved,  many  might  remain  in  their  filth, 
others  might  be  rescued  from  it.  Human  nature  is  imitative,  and  the 
force  of  good  example  is  catching. 

H.  Ex.  354 - 28 


434  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


Undoubtedly,  even  the  lowest  class  should  be  stimulated  by  offering 
them  the  best  accommodation  that  can  be  remuneratively  afforded. 
Strong  willed,  intelligent  people  create  or  modify  environment,  while 
the  weaker  and  unthinking  become  largely  subject  to  it.  This  is  the 
correct  way  of  expressing  the  relation  of  individuals  to  environment. 
The  importance  of  healthy  living  surroundings  can  find  no  stronger 
principle  of  sanction  than  that  offered  by  this  great  law  of  human 
progress. 

Drunkenness  is  sometimes  the  cause,  but  is  oftener  the  effect  of  poor 
housing.  Physical  exhaustion,  nervous  depression,  want  of  nutritious 
food,  etc.,  stimulate  alcoholic  indulgence.  Saloons  are  thickest  in  the 
worst  centers.  They  would  not  be  found  there  if  they  did  not  receive 
patronage.  In  Saint  Giles’  ward  the  population  is  the  most  dense  and 
the  housing  the  poorest  in  the  whole  city  of  Edinburgh.  There  were 
in  1889  in  this  division  127  licensed  premises  for  the  sale  of  liquor  to 
234  where  food  could  be  obtained.  Strangely  enough  the  rental  of  the 
latter  was  but  79.6  per  cent  as  much  as  for  the  former,  possibly  a  gauge 
of  relative  patronage.  Out  of  8,139  police  offenses  in  Edinburgh  during 
a  single  year,  2,690  were  committed  in  Saint  Giles’  ward.  These  statis¬ 
tics  are  exceedingly  suggestive.  The  district  contains  one-eleventh  of 
the  population  of  the  city,  yet  it  furnishes  one- third  of  its  total  crime. 
The  total  number  of  one-room  tenements  in  the  city  is  14,393,  one- eighth 
of  which  are  found  in  this  ward.  The  average  density  for  the  whole  of 
Edinburgh  is  44.4  per  acre.  In  Saint  Giles’  ward  it  is  114.5,  notwith¬ 
standing  that  17£  per  cent  of  its  area  is  taken  up  with  parks.  The 
death  rate  for  this  ward  was  26.79  per  1,000  during  the  half  year  ending 
June  30, 1888,  for  the  whole  city  19.02.  During  the  corresponding  period 
in  1889  the  death  rate  of  the  city  was  16.05  per  1,000,  while  that  of 
Saint  Giles’  ward  was  22.11.  Bad  housing  is  at  the  bottom  of  this 
strikingly  unfavorable  showing. 

Dr.  Bussell,  in  a  most  interesting  address  before  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Glasgow,  in  1889,  took  the  worst  district  of  Glasgow  and 
analyzed  its  sanitary  and  social  condition  for  the  purpose  of  giving  an 
object  lesson.  This  district,  Bo.  14,  embraced  35  acres,  in  which  were 
1,308  separate  dwellings  inhabited  by  7,150  persons.  The  district  “lies 
between  Stockwell  street  and  Saltmarket  on  the  west  and  east  and 
Trongate  and  Clyde  on  the  north  and  south.  The  Union  Bailway 
occupies  the  very  center.  Between  the  clearances  necessary  to  its  for¬ 
mation  and  the  operations  of  the  Improvement  Trust,  this  district  has 
been,  so  to  speak,  disemboweled.  Still,  in  those  portions  which  remain, 
we  find  a  population  the  like  of  which,  for  social  and  moral  degrada¬ 
tion,  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  city.  Their  houses,  though  much  has 
been  done  for  them,  are  radically  bad,  and  total  demolition  and  recon¬ 
struction  is  the  only  remedy.”  This  district  “has  the  largest  propor¬ 
tion  of  inmates  per  inhabited  room,  the  largest  proportion,  save  one, 
of  one-apartment  houses,  the  highest  death  rate  over  all,  the  highest 


CHAPTER  XII. - ECONOMIC  AND  ETHICAL  ASPECTS.  435 

death  rate  under  5  years,  the  largest  proportion  of  deaths  under  1  year 
per  1,000  born.”  Fifty-one  per  cent  of  the  dwellings  in  this  district 
are  “ticketed,”  and  thus  subject  to  night  inspection  for  prevention  of 
overcrowding. 

In  this  district  there  were  232  deaths  and  218  births  during  the  year 
1888.  The  birth  rate  per  1,000  was  30.49,  while  that  of  the  whole  city 
was  34.92.  The  death  rate  per  1,000  was  32.45;  for  the  city  as  a  whole, 
20.91.  The  death  rate  of  children  under  1  year  of  age  per  1,000  born 
was  239  for  the  district  and  133  for  the  city  as  a  whole.  In  this  district 
24  per  cent  of  the  children  born  did  not  survive  after  one  year.  In  this 
district  25  per  cent  ot  the  children  born  were  illegitimate,  in  the  whole 
city  8  per  cent.  Of  the  232  deaths  18.5  per  cent  were  uncertified,  and 
therefore  received  no  medical  care  in  their  last  illness,  29.7  per  cent 
died  in  public  institutions,  and  51.8  per  cent  died  at  borne.  The  public 
institutions  are  classified  into  those  supported  out  of  the  public  rates 
and  those  supported  by  voluntary  charity.  The  deaths  in  the  former 
represented  25.4  per  cent  of  the  whole,  and  those  in  the  latter  4.3  per 
cent.  This  does  not  take  into  account  the  people  who  were  original 
residents  of  this  district  who  contracted  their  sickness  or  evil  tenden¬ 
cies  there,  but  wdio  died  in  poorhouses.  Of  those  who  died  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  37  per  cent  were  interred  at  the  expense  of  the  ratepayers.  This 
is  exclusive  of  10  stillborn  children  interred  at  the  expense  of  the  san¬ 
itary  department.  The  cost  of  interment  of  all  classes  to  the  city  as 
a  whole  was  9.28  per  cent,  and  the  proportion  of  all  the  deaths  in  the 
city  which  took  place  in  institutions  of  all  kinds  was  15.5  per  cent.  Of 
the  total  number  of  births  in  the  district  10  per  cent  were  at  the  cost  of 
charity  and  the  rates,  while  45  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  births 
were  attended  to  by  doctors  and  nurses  whose  salaries  were  paid  by 
public  institutions.  Therefore,  at  least  55  per  cent  of  the  cases  of  child¬ 
birth  were  attended  through  the  help  of  charity  or  the  rates,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  25  per  cent  in  the  whole  city. 

If  we  take  the  various  forms  of  personal  work  done  by  officials  within 
the  bounds  of  this  small  area,  we  shall  get  some  conception  of  the 
amount  of  public  money  expended  on  it  merely  in  the  shape  of  the  time 
of  subordinate  officers.  We  find  that  there  were  231  inspections,  visi¬ 
tations,  and  other  consumptions  of  official  time  per  100  of  population  in 
this  district.  For  the  whole  city  the  proportion  was  84  per  100  of  pop¬ 
ulation.  The  nuisances  discovered  amounted  to  38  per  100  inhabited 
tenements  in  this  district.  The  proportion  for  the  city  as  a  whole  was 
16.  Analysis  of  rentals  for  the  district,  and  rates  and  taxes  paid  show 
that  the  cost  of  all  this  public  support  is  not  borne  by  the  inhabitants 
who  do  the  mischief  but  by  the  better  classes.  Of  householders,  whose 
house  imoperty  cost  less  than  £10  ($48.67)  per  year,  28.5  per  cent  paid 
no  rates  or  school  tax  whatever  during  the  year  1888-89,  though  by  law 
they  are  obliged  to  do  so.  For  police  rates  20.46  per  cent  of  the  same 
class  paid  nothing.  Dr.  Russell  maintains  that  the  number  of  house- 


436  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


holders  in  Glasgow  who  put  nothing  into  the  public  purse  while  they 
take  freely  out  of  it  is  about  24,000.  He  arrives  at  this  conclusion  from 
an  entirely  distinct  set  of  facts : 

1.  Occupiers  under  £10  ($48.67)  rental  annually  who  fail  to  pay  the 
police  rates,  24,012. 

2.  The  number  of  u  ticketed  houses,”  23,288. 

3.  The  householders  under  £10  ($48.67)  rental  annually  reported  as 
having  failed  to  pay  the  poor  rate,  24,627. 

He  maintains  that  this  is  evidence  to  show  that  they  were  dealing  with 
the  same  persons  throughout.  Estimating  each  household  to  contain 
3£  persons,  84,000  people  put  nothing  into  the  public  purse  of  Glasgow 
annually,  but  took  freely  from  it. 

In  this  district  there  are  43  public  houses  with  an  annual  rental 
of  £5,167  2s.  ($25,145.69).  There  are  104  premises  where  food  supply 
is  obtained,  such  as  groceries,  confectioneries,  restaurants,  bakeries, 
dairies,  butcher  shops,  etc.,  whose  total  annual  rental  is  £4,944 
12s.  ($24,062.90). 

Bad  housing  is  a  terribly  expensive  thing  to  any  community.  More¬ 
over,  it  explains  much  that  is  mysterious  in  relation  to  drunkenness, 
poverty,  crime,  and  all  forms  of  social  decline. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

It  will  be  obvious  to  a  careful  reader  of  the  preceding  pages  that  dif¬ 
ferentiation  of  the  great  mass  included  under  the  somewhat  indefinite 
term  of  working  people  is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  statement  of 
conclusions.  In  the  first  place  there  is  the  artisan  element.  Members 
of  this  class  are  in  receipt  of  fair  wages.  As  a  rule,  they  are  steady, 
thrifty,  and  socially  ambitious.  They  are  good  tenants,  and  persons 
who  make  house  ownership  their  business  are  very  glad  to  have  them. 
They  can  pay  sufficient  rent  for  good  houses,  and  for  them  builders, 
whether  private  individuals  or  model  companies,  as  a  matter  of  fact  can 
and  usually  do  make  satisfactory  provision.  Sanitary  la  w  and  wise  build¬ 
ing  regulations,  which  are  meant  for  the  protection  of  all  alike,  are  the 
only  things  this  section  needs.  Private  or  model  enterprise  may,  and 
often  does,  secure  a  good  return  upon  capital  in  letting  accommodation 
to  married  artisans.  Single  members  of  this  class  have  no  difficulty  in 
securing  good  boarding  houses.  There  seems,  therefore,  absolutely  no 
excuse  why  workingmen  in  receipt  of  fair  wages  should  not  be  every¬ 
where  provided  with  good  homes.  It  is  largely  the  fault  of  public 
authorities  if  they  are  not. 

The  next  step  in  the  gradation  is  occupied  by  individuals  who  have 
not  mounted  quite  so  high  in  the  social  scale.  One  section  has  been 
unfortunate,  and  through  sickness  or  other  misfortune  has  grown  deeply 
in  debt  or  become  discouraged  in  the  eftort  to  maintain  a  fair  standard 
of  existence.  The  other  includes  those  prone  to  be  lazy  and  careless, 
and  those  who  are  not  particularly  intelligent  or  ambitious  or  are  pos¬ 
sessed  of  bad  habits.  Both  sections  are  somewhat  irregular  as  rent 
payers,  the  latter  figuring  especially  as  rent  jumpers.  They  are  not 
desirable  tenants,  and  usually  they  have  difficulty  in  finding  fair 
accommodation.  The  first  section  of  this  class  is  generally  that  which 
model  enterprises  of  a  philanthropic  or  semiphilanthropic  character 
have  attempted  to  deal  with,  though  the  greater  number  of  model 
agencies  have  designedly  left  them  out.  Sir  Sydney  Wateilow,in  divid¬ 
ing  working  people  into  three  degrees,  the  upper,  middle,  and  lower, 
states  his  belief  that  it  would  not  have  been  right  to  build  down  to 
the  lowest  class,  because  in  so  doing  his  company  would  have  been 
obliged  to  construct  a  class  of  tenements  which,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  no 


440  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR. 


one  at  the  end  of  a  few  years  would  be  satisfied  with.  Thereiore 
his  policy  is  to  build  for  the  best  class,  and  by  lifting  them  up  to 
leave  more  room  for  the  second  and  third  below  them.  One  need  not 
suggest  an  objection  which  very  naturally  arises,  namely,  that  as  the 
price  of  land  is  such  an  element  in  commercial  success  the  higher  class 
would  have  all  the  advantage  because,  naturally,  the  most  available 
and  cheapest  land  would  first  be  selected.  When  after  the  lapse  of 
half  a  century,  for  example,  supposing  there  were  no  other  than  model 
enterprises,  the  first  section  having  been  fully  provided  for,  it  would  be 
exceedingly  difficult  to  help  the  second  and  third.  Cheap  laud  would 
probably  only  be  found  at  great  distances  from  places  of  employment. 

Lord  Shaftesbury,  in  his  evidence  before  the  royal  commission  on  the 
housing  of  the  working  classes,  corroborated  the  opinion  expressed  by 
a  great  many  other  witnesses,  namely,  that  model  dwellings  have  not 
largely  reached  the  class  whose  needs  are  greatest. 

Now,  this  large  body  referred  to  is  placed  on  an  inclined  plane,  so  to 
speak,  their  circumstances,  characteristics,  and  environments  giving 
them  a  downward  trend.  They  need  looking  after,  and  they  are  the 
class  with  which  lady  rent  collectors  should  establish  reciprocal  relations 
of  business  and  sympathetic  interest.  These  people  should  also  come 
within  the  purview  of  philanthropic  effort,  and  should  find  shelter  in 
houses  erected  by  large  philanthropic  gifts  or  bequests  and  by  organiza¬ 
tions  of  individuals  who  agree  to  limit  dividends  to  a  low  figure.  Pro¬ 
viding  for  this  class,  too,  on  a  commercial  basis  is  not  without  the 
range  of  possibility,  as  has  been  demonstrated  in  Glasgow  and  Edin¬ 
burgh,  among  other  places.  The  way  in  which  it  has  been  done  has 
been  to  purchase  old  and  dilapidated  property  which  had  been  closed 
or  which  ran  great  risk  of  being  closed  for  sanitary  reasons,  renovating 
it  thoroughly,  and  placing  it  under  the  control  of  lady  rent  collectors 
with  wise  heads  and  sympathetic  hearts.  The  Edinburgh  Social  Union 
has  demonstrated  that  this  division  of  society  may  be  acceptably 
housed  on  commercial  principles  in  the  manner  outlined.  Of  course, 
one  can  not  expect  a  great  extension  of  effort  if  philanthropy  alone  is 
to  be  depended  upon.  In  Glasgow,  for  example,  the  90,000  dwellings 
inhabited  largely  by  casual  workers,  the  poor  and  the  criminal  classes, 
have  a  value  of  more  than  £8,000,000  ($38,932,000).  The  demonstra¬ 
tion  that  commercial  success  may  attend  renovation  is  as  fortunate  as 
it  is  timely. 

The  third  section  includes  the  incorrigible,  the  drunkard,  the  crimi¬ 
nal,  the  immoral,  the  lazy,  and  the  shiftless.  These  do  not  pay  rent 
if  they  can  avoid  it.  They  ruin  any  property  in  which  they  take  shelter, 
and  can  consequently  only  get  the  lowest  sort  of  accommodation.  They 
hate  discipline,  and,  as  Lord  Shaftesbury  significantly  remarks,  they 
have  hardly  any  domestic  or  civilized  feelings.  Further,  says  he,  “I 
believe  that  nothing  has  led  more  to  misery  of  every  sort,  moral  and 
physical,  than  burying  those  people  in  holes  where  nobody  saw  them, 


CHAPTER  XIII. - CONCLUSIONS. 


441 


and  they  saw  nobody,  except  those  who  lived  immediately  around  them.” 
There  must  be  an  entire  change  of  policy  on  the  part  of  governing 
bodies  toward  this  class.  Lord  Provost  Kussell  of  Edinburgh  goes  so 
far  as  to  say  that  they  should  be  driven  from  their  hiding  places  into 
municipal  lodging  houses,  where  they  could  be  under  police  control,  the 
sexes  separated,  and  the  children  placed  in  institutions  where  they 
might  grow  up  useful  members  of  society.  The  concurrence  of  these 
distinguished  authorities,  both  of  whom  have  experienced  a  lifelong 
interest  in  the  housing  of  the  poor,  and  have  had,  therefore,  every 
opportunity  for  mature  judgment,  would  seem  to  furnish  weighty  rea¬ 
sons  for  reform  in  the  current  treatment  of  the  lowest  social  strata. 
To  the  possible  cry  against  breaking  up  the  family  it  is  only  necessary 
to  answer  that  the  bulk  of  such  people  are  unmarried,  that  they  have 
not  even  a  moderate  standard  of  domestic  life,  and  that  to  them  the 
word  “home”  has  no  proper  meaning.  The  only  prospect  of  reducing 
the  number  of  the  submerged  is  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the  matter  by 
removing  the  children  from  environments  where  there  is  everything  to 
drag  down  and  nothing  to  uplift.  Happily,  the  increasing  strictness 
of  sanitary  enforcement  is  driving  this  class  more  and  more  into  lodging 
houses. 

With  the  disappearance  of  existing  slum  property  and  the  precau¬ 
tions  that  boards  of  health  are  taking  to  prevent  new  slums  from 
springing  up,  coupled  with  the  repugnance  of  landlords  owning  decent 
property  to  receive  such  tenants,  the  areas  in  which  they  can  find 
shelter  are  more  and  more  restricted.  Discipline,  regularity,  and  insist¬ 
ence  upon  prompt  daily  payment  for  accommodation  given,  can  not  fail 
to  have  a  reforming  influence  upon  individual  habits. 

The  duty  of  every  community  to  provide  itself  with  an  efficient  sani¬ 
tary  code  and  to  see  that  the  same  is  enforced  is  apparent  enough; 
neither  is  there  any  excuse  for  failing  to  make  stringent  building 
regulations  so  that  the  future  may  be  guaranteed.  The  great  benefits 
of  sanitary  reform  have  been  outlined  in  Chapter  IY,  and  the  wisdom 
of  having  alert  organizations  to  uphold  and  assist  the  authorities  is 
amply  justified  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
property  holders  should  be  called  upon  to  produce  upon  demand  a 
sanitary  certificate.  Houses  being,  in  one  sense,  commodities,  this 
method  of  treatment  would  simply  put  the  owners  of  bad  property  in 
the  same  light  before  the  law  as  the  venders  of  decayed  fruits  or 

vegetables.  ... 

It  is  scarcely  an  excuse  to  say  that  a  tenant  is  willing  to  a  te  ns  rs. 
He  may  be  ignorant,  or  he  may  be  apathetic  and  careless  about 
hygienic  surroundings  for  himself  and  family.  The  community  has  a 
right  to  protect  itself  so  that  such  people  may  not  become  public 
charges  through  sickness.  But  it  is  not  the  landloid  a  one  a  ter 
whom  it  is  necessary  to  look.  Tenants  should  be  coerced  into  keep¬ 
ing  themselves  and  their  surroundings  reasonably  clean,  as  is  done 


442  SPECIAL  REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF  LABOR.. 


in  Berlin,  where,  after  warning,  unusually  slovenly  families  are  turned 
out  of  their  dwellings  and  subjected  during  a  certain  period  to  the 
special  surveillance  of  the  police.  In  this  way  the  upgrowth  of  slums 
is  prevented.  Tenants  generally  feel  that  when  they  pay  their  rent 
their  dwellings  belong  to  them,  and  that  if  they  wish  to  sublet  any 
part  thereof  that  is  their  affair.  This  custom  ought  to  be  regulated 
and  the  practice  of  overcrowding  repressed  with  a  strong  hand.  The 
slum  must  go.  Not  only  is  it  a  menace  to  public  health,  but  it  is  a 
moral  fester  wherein  character  is  being  continually  debauched  and  the 
evils  which  afflict  civilization  recruited.  English  laws  and  practice, 
which  have  been  thoroughly  outlined  in  Chapter  II,  furnish,  if  not  the 
best,  at  least  a  practicable,  means  for  eradicating  slums  from  the  mod¬ 
ern  city.  The  process  is  always  costly,  especially  when  awakenings 
come  late;  but  then  it  must  be  understood  that  nothing  is  so  expensive 
as  disease  and  moral  decline. 

There  is  another  feature  of  this  problem  which  stands  clearly  outlined. 
Investigation  shows  indubitably  that  the  percentage  of  earnings  of 
heads  of  tenant  families  which  is  absorbed  in  payment  of  rent  in  all 
large  cities  is  far  too  high.  It  is  no  wonder  that  overcrowding  within 
the  dwelling  as  well  as  overcrowding  on  space  becomes  an  almost 
universal  practice.  The  price  of  land  can  not  be  artificially  lowered 
nor  can  wages  be  advanced  by  public  decree.  For  governing  bodies  to 
assume  the  task  of  housing  so  large  a  quota  of  the  population  as  would 
be  represented,  without  any  commercial  return,  might  operate  indi¬ 
rectly  to  enhance  wages,  but,  like  other  artificial  stimuli,  would  very 
soon  lose  its  good  effects. 

Scanty  wages  are  a  powerful  element  in  human  misery.  Weak  char¬ 
acters  are  apt  to  become  despondent  and  allow  themselves  to  drift  with 
the  tide,  and  end  too  often  in  a  state  of  chronic  wretchedness.  Those 
whose  earnings  are  not  only  scanty  but  fitful  have  a  supreme  necessity 
to  live  near  the  localities  where  labor  may  be  obtained.  This  means 
that  they  must  be  housed  where  land  is  valuable,  and  for  that  reason 
where  it  is  hard  to  build  new  houses  and  make  them  pay.  Here  is, 
indeed,  the  crux  of  the  problem.  Does  the  present  inquiry  furnish  any 
suggestion  for  its  solution  ?  A  hint  has  already  been  offered  from  the 
commercially  successful  experience  of  agencies  in  Edinburgh  and  Glas¬ 
gow,  cities  certainly  where  the  average  earnings  of  unskilled  labor  are 
much  lower  than  they  are  in  any  American  center  of  like  population. 
Old  property  was  bought  which  either  had  been  closed  as  unfit  for  human 
habitation  and  its  value  thus  artificially  depressed,  or  which  was  in  a 
dilapidated  condition  and  yielded  insignificant  returns.  Such  proper¬ 
ties  were  remodeled,  filled  with  the  class  of  laborers  referred  to,  and 
placed  under  the  administration  of  lady  rent  collectors.  Efforts  of  this 
kind,  however,  are  limited  by  the  public  spirit,  philanthropic  senti¬ 
ment,  and  courage  existing  in  a  given  community.  Probably  not  a 
tithe  of  the  necessary  effort  can  be  organized. 


CHAPTER  XIII. - CONCLUSIONS. 


443 


A  way,  however,  seems  to  be  opening  up  wherein  the  elements  just 
mentioned  do  not  largely  enter.  For  the  workingman’s  purposes  spaee 
is  measured  by  time  not  by  distance.  Underground  and  overhead 
electric  transportation  means  the  lessening  of  distances,  and  brings  a 
large  range  of  territory  within  living  areas  which  hitherto  has  been 
outside  possible  consideration.  The  effect  of  rapid  transit  ought 
normally  to  be  that  artisans,  or  the  higher  earning  portion  of  work¬ 
ing  people,  will  more  and  more  house  themselves  in  the  suburbs  of 
cities,  where  they  may  purchase  homes  upon  reasonable  conditions. 
Widening  habitable  areas  to  workingmen  in  cities  would  not  only 
relieve  congestion  of  population,  but  it  must  in  time  reduce  the  demand 
for  houses  in  those  spots  where  massing  most  frequently  occurs,  conse¬ 
quently  reducing  rents  so  that  those  with  lower  earnings  might 
then  find  fair  accommodation  at  reasonable  rates.  The  cheapening 
of  property  in  these  neighborhoods  would  enlarge  the  action  of  that 
form  of  philanthropy  which  organizes  itself  into  agencies  for  purchas¬ 
ing  and  reconstructing  old  tenements,  putting  ladies  in  charge,  and 
contenting  itself  with  a  normal  commercial  return.  The  artificial 
enhancement  of  rents,  due  most  largely  to  these  necessities  of  the 
poorer  laborers,  is  already  operating  to  relieve  congestion  in  certain 
parts  of  New  York  city.  Clothing  manufacturers  and  others  conduct¬ 
ing  house  industries  are  sending  their  goods  to  the  country  districts  to 
have  them  made.  The  workmen  are  going  with  the  goods. 

Increasing  sanitary  stringency,  encouragement  afforded  by  savings 
banks,  life  insurance,  and  other  institutions  in  lending  money  at  low 
rates,  the  spread  of  knowledge  and  awakening  of  public  interest 
through  such  agencies  as  the  French  society  for  promoting  cheap  dwell¬ 
ings,  and  the  support  of  model  effort  are  indications  pregnant  with 
hope  and  possibility. 

The  problem  of  the  housing  of  working  people  includes  sanitary, 
economic,  and  ethical  issues  of  the  highest  importance,  but  a  final 
solution  can  only  be  wrought  out  along  economic  lines.  The  general 
teaching  of  the  present  inquiry,  as  regards  model  housing  enter¬ 
prises,  affords  in  most  respects  a  certainty,  and  in  others  more  than 
a  reasonable  probability,  that  this  can  be  done  in  the  future,  as  the 
figures  quoted  in  the  previous  chapter  show  that  it  has  been  done  in 

the  past. 


I 


INDEX 


A. 


Aim  of  the  investigation . . . 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Laborers’  Dwellings/AmVterdam.  HoiVand* . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . !!!!!!!.'.""."”! . 

ren  ts .  . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity*!!.".  !!'.  "" 
Amsterdam,  Holland,  Society  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes 

Analysis  of  chapters . .  . . 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  model  small  houses  of..!!!!!!!!!!!”!!”!!" 

Anzin,  France,  Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  modol  houses  of . !!!!!!!! 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England: 

description  of  property . . 

financial  statement . "”"  !!”! 

occupations  of  tenants . "" 

rents . !.!..!!!!!!!!!! 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 

description . . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents  . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

vital  statistics . 

Austria,  laws  of,  relating  to  housing  of  working  people . 

B. 

Back-to-back  houses  in  Manchester,  England — 

annual  death  rate  per  1,000  during  five  years  in . 

plan  for  providing  through  ventilation  of . 

Bad  housing — 

economic  conditions  resulting  from . 

sanitary  and  social  conditions  resulting  from . 

Baltimore.  Maryland,  model  lodging  house . 

Barmen  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Barmen,  Germany: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

rents . . . . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . — . . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . . 

Belgian  law  of  August  9,  1889,  text  of . - . 

Belgian  law  of  1889,  by-laws  of  a  joint  stock  loan  company  formed  under  the . 

Belgium — 

laws  of,  relating  to  expropriation . 

laws  of,  relating  to  housing  of  working  people . . 

sanitary  laws  of . 

Berlin  Building  Association,  Berlin,  Germany : 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  shareholders . . . . . 

occupations  of  those  who  have  acquired  property - ....... . . . -  •  •  -  • 

Berlin  Central  Institute  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  WorkingPeoplo,  housing  work  ot. 
Berlin,  Germany — 

Berlin  Building  Association . 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company . 

German  People’s  Building  Company . 

proposed  tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach . 

Society  for  the  Improvement  of  Tenements . . 

statistics  of  mortality  in . 


Page. 

19 

313, 314 
314 
314 
314 
313 
18, 19 
361-364 
356, 357 

222-226 

223 

224 
223, 226 

226 

186-190 

189 

189 

190 

189 

190 
189 

155, 156 


94 

95 


435, 436 
434, 435 
401, 402 

374, 375 
375 
374, 375 

374 

375 
374 
374 

354, 355 
353-355 
355 
355 
355 
355 
355 
149-152 
137-140 

67,68 
133-152 
51, 53 

372, 373 
371,372 

373 

374 
373 

167, 168 

371-374 
288-290 
391, 392 
292 
291 
75,76 


445 


446 


INDEX. 


Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany : 

conditions  of  tenancy .  290 

description  of  property .  288-290 

earnings  of  tenants .  290 

financial  statement .  289,  290 

occupations  of  tenants . - .  290 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . . . . . . . .  290 

rents .  289 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  290 

Birkenhead,  England,  Lever  Brothers,  profit  sharing  scheme  of .  839 

Birmingham,  England,  results  of  expropriation  in .  65,  66 

Blanzy  Mining  Company,  Blanzy,  Erance,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  358 

description .  357,  358 

rents . 358 

Block  buildings— 

definition  of .  172 

healthfulness  of . 175,176 

in  London,  classification  of .  173 

Board  of  Health  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  weekly  rents  per  room  in  houses  ordered  vacated 

hy,  in  February,  1892 .  420 

Board  ofi  Health  of  New  York  city,  composition  and  powers  of . . .  24-26 

Bois-du-Luc  Mining  Company,  Bois-du-Luc,  Belgium,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 371 

description .  371 

rents .  371 

Boston  Board  of  Health,  weekly  rents  per  room  in  houses  ordered  vacated  by,  in  February,  1892.  420 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  206,  207 

description  of  property .  201-205 

duration  of  tenancy .  205,  206 

earnings  of  tenants .  206 

financial  statement .  204,  205 

nationality  of  tenants .  206 

occupations  of  tenants .  206 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  205 

rents .  203,206,419 

vital  statistics .  203 

Boston,  Massachusetts — 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company .  200-207 

Bunker  Hill  Terraces .  211-214 

Improved  Dwellings  Association .  207-211 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  model  small  bouses  of .  336 

population  of  tenement  houses  in .  421 

sanitary  condition  of  tenements  in  tenement  houses  in .  421 

work  of  sanitary  aid  societies  in .  88 

Bourget,  France,  Northern  Railway,  model  small  houses  of .  359, 360 

Brooklyn,  New  York — 

Astral  Apartments .  186-190 

Improved  Dwellings  Company .  177-186 

Brussels,  Belgium — 

Brussels  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company .  3C9 

bureau  of  hygiene,  work  of .  52 

death  rate  per  1,000  from  infectious  diseases  and  from  all  causes  in  (1864-1890) .  75 

results  of  expropriation  in .  63 

Brussels  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Brussels,  Belgium: 

description  of  property .  369 

rents .  369 

Building  and  loan  associations  in  the  United  States  and  England,  statistics  of .  173 

Building  regulations — 

Berlin,  Germany .  109-116 

Brussels,  Belgium .  108 

importance  of .  93-95 

London,  England .  96-100 

Manchester,  England .  100-107 

New  York  city .  117-127 

Paris,  France .  107, 108 

Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts: 

description . 211-214 

rents .  213 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  363 

description .  361-363 

financial  statement .  363 

occupations  of  tenants .  364 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  363 

rents .  363 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  363 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  365 

conditions  of  tenancy .  365 

description .  364,  365 

earnings  of  tenants .  365 

occupations  of  tenants .  365 

rents .  365 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  365 

vital  statistics . 365 

Burns’  homes  (model  lodging  houses',  Glasgow,  Scotland .  407-412 

By-laws  of  a  joint  stock  loan  company  formed  under  the  Belgian  law  of  1889..................  137-149 


INDEX, 


447 


c. 


Carnegie,  D.,  and  Company,  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  model  small  houses  of: 

description . 

rents . !!!".!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!""** 

Carnoustie,  Scotland,  James  Smieton  and  Sons,  model  small  houses  of..!!."..'."".  '.'.'.' . 

Cathedral  Court  model  buildings,  Glasgow,  Scotland.  (See  Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings 
Company.)  b 

Character  and  scope  of  the  investigation . 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Lyons,  France: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . !.."."."!!! ! 

financial  statement . 

rents . !!!!!!!! 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . !!!!! 

Ch6n6e,  Belgium,  Vieille-Montagne  Company,  model  small  houses  of . !!!!!!!! 

Cit6  Hoyaux,  Mons,  Belgium : 

description . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

rents . 

Cologne,  Germany,  Gerhard  vom  Rath  Fund,  model  small  houses  of . 

Complaints  and  recommendations  regarding  insanitary  conditions  in  New  York  city,  types  of. 
Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

vital  statistics . 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen-Gladbach,  Germany : 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  ef  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

rents . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

Copenhagen,  Denmark — 

Medical  Association  of  Denmark . 

Workingmen's  Building  Society . 

Cumberland  Mills,  Maine,  S.  D.  Warren  and  Company,  model  small  houses  of . 


Page. 

398 

398 

340-342 


17-19 

283 
281-283 
282,  283 
283 
283 
366 

370 

370 

370 

393 

34-37 

302, 303 
299-303 
302 

301 

302 

301 

302 
301 

376 

377 
375-377 

376 

376 

376 

376 

396 

394-396 

321-324 


D. 


Death  rate  and  density  of  population  In  twenty-five  large  towns  in  Great  Britain . 

Death  rate — 

annual,  per  1,000  during  five  years  in  back-to-back  houses  in  Manchester,  England . 

average  annual,  per  1,000  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland  (1865-1890)... . 

average  annual,  per  1,000  in  London,  England,  by  ton-year  periods  (1841-1890) . 

mean,  in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland  (1871-1880) . 

•f  children  under  1  year  in  Glasgow,  Scotland  (1873-1893) . 

of  children  under  1  year  in  London,  England  (1841-1890) . 

•f  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in  1871  and  1892  compared . . . - . • . 

per  1,000  from  infectious  diseases  and  from  all  causes  in  Brussels,  Belgium  ( 1864—1890) . . 

per  1,000  in  New  York  city  (1866-1891) . 

relation  of  density  of  population  to . 

relation  of  drainage  to . 

relation  ef  overcrowding  to . . 

relation  of,  to  house  accommodation  in  Scotland . - . 

Death  rates,  deaths,  and  population  in  certain  localities  in  New  York  city . 

Definition  of — 

block  building . 

lodging  house . 

small  house . 

tenement  house . 

ticketed  tenement . - . 

Delft,  Holland,  Van  Marken  model  dwellings . - . . 

Density  of  population  and  death  rate  in  twenty-five  large  towns  in  Great  Britain . . . 

Density  of  population,  relation  of,  to  death  rate . - . 

Discount  Bank  of  Paris,  Paris,  France,  model  small  houses  ot: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

description . 

earnings  of  tenants . - . y: . 

Dividends  and  net  profits  of  model  housing  companies,  per  oent  ot. . . ■  - . 

Drainage  and  water-closets,  requirements  of  London  county  council  regarding . 

Drainage,  relation  of,  to  death  rate . 

Dresden,  Germany- 

Cooperative  Building  Association . 

Saint  John’s  Society . .  -  - . 

Duisburg,  Germany,  municipal  model  dwellings . 

Dundee,  Scotland,  results  of  expropriation  in . . . * . . 


77,  78 

94 
73 

73 
78 
76 

76 

74 

75 
72 

95 
95 

76-79, 95 

78,  79 

77 

172 
27, 172 
172 
27 
73,74 
396,  397 
77, 78 
95 

345 

345 

345 

429-431 

47 

95 

299-303 

303-306 

393 

64,  65 


448 


INDEX. 


E. 

Page. 

Earnings,  maximum  per  cent  of,  to  1)0  paid  for  rent . . . . .  422 

Earnings  of  tenants  in  model  block  buildings: 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Laborers’ Dwellings,  Amsterdam,  Holland .  314 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  189 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Gormany .  290 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts . .  206 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany .  302 

Glasgow  Workmen's  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  265,267 

Guinness  Trust,  London,  England .  242 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts . .  210 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city .  194 

Locst’s  Court,  llalle  on  the  Saale,  Germany .  312 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany .  295 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool,  England .  254 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London,  England .  234,238 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France .  276 

Itosomount  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  for  Working  People,  Edinburgh,  Scot¬ 
land .  272 

Saipt  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany .  306 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Gormany .  308 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Gormany .  284-286 

Earnings  of  tenants  in  model  small  houses: 

Barmen  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Barmen,  Germany . .  374 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France .  355 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium .  365 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Munchen-Gladbach,  Germany .  376 

Discount  Bank  of  Paris,  Paris,  France .  345 

Havre  Workingmen's  Dwellings  Company,  Havre,  France .  346 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts .  326 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Maroinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium .  368 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany . .  380 

Menier,  M.,  Noisiel,  France .  352 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  France .  357 

Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France .  359 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England .  339 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg,  Germany .  393- 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany .  378 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss,  Germany .  381 

Peters,  D.,  and  Company,  Neviges,  Gormany .  389 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois .  331,  332 

Kouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  Franco .  348,350 

Royal  Prussian  State  Railway,  Leinhausen,  Hanover,  Germany .  392 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland .  341,  342 

The  Cottage,  Lyons,  France .  347 

Villeroy  and  Bocb,  Mettlacli,  Germany .  390 

Warren,  S.  D..  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine .  323 

Workingmen's  Building  Society,  Copenhagen,  Denmark .  395 

Earnings  of  tenants,  per  cent  of,  paid  for  rent  in  model  block  buildings: 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  190 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany .  290 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  205 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany .  302 

Glasgow  Workmen's  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  265 

Guinness  Trust,  London,  England .  242 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  210 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  220 

Locst.'s  Court,  Hallo  on  the  Saale,  Germany .  312 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany .  294 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool,  England .  255 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  271 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London,  England .  234 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France .  276 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany .  306 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany .  .  298 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany .  308 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  Franco .  U81 

Earnings  of  tenants,  per  cent  of,  paid  for  rent,  in  model  small  houses : 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France .  355 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium .  363 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company.  Havre,  France .  346 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium .  368 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany .  380 

Menier,  M.,  Noisiel,  France .  352 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts .  335 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England  . .  339 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany .  378 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss,  Germany . . .  381 

Peters,  1).,  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany .  389 

Pullman's  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois .  331,332 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland. ,d .  342 

Yicille-Montagne  Company,  Ch6n6e,  Belgium .  366 

Warren,  S.  D.,  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maino .  323 

Willimantio  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut .  328 

Earnings,  relation  of  rents  to,  in  various  cities .  422,423 

East  Canton  street  model  buildings,  Boston,  Massachusetts.  (See  Boston  Cooperative  Build¬ 
ing  Company.) 


INDEX. 


449 


East  End  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England: 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

rents .  . 

Economic  and  ethical  aspects . 

Economic  conditions  resulting  from  bad  housing .  . 

Edinbnrgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edinburgh,  Scotland: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

rents . . . 

Edinburgh,  Scotland — 

average  annual  death  rate  per  1,000  in  (1865-1890; . 

Grass  Market  model  lodging  house . 

Pilrig  Model  Dwellings . 

results  of  expropriation  in . 

Rosemount  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  for  Working  People . 

Well  Court  Model  Tenements . 

work  of  sanitary  aid  societies  in . 

Edinburgh  Social  Union — 

housing  work  of . 

rent  collecting  system  of . . . . 

England,  sanitary  laws  of . . . 

English  legislation  relating  to  lodging  houses . 

Essen,  Germany,  Friedrich  Krupp,  model  small  houses  of . 

Ethical  and  economic  aspects . 

Ethical  features  of  one- room  tenements . 

Expropriation  for  sanitary  purposes . 

Expropriation,  objections  to . 

Expropriation,  results  of.  in — 

Birmingham,  England . 

Brussels,  Belgium . 

Dundee,  Scotland . 

Edinbnrgh,  Scotland . 

Glasgow,  Scotland . 

Liverpool,  England . 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  England . 


F. 


Families,  average  size  of— 

in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland . 

living  in  different  sized  tenements  in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland 
Fanien,  M.,  Lillers,  France,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . 

rents. .... .......... . . . - - . . . 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  Loudon,  England: 


conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

France — 

beginning  of  model  housing  in . 

laws  of,  relating  to  expropriation. . . - . 

laws  of,  relating  to  housing  of  working  people . 

sanitary  laws  or . . .  . . 

Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany,  Tenement  Dwellings  Company . 

French  law  of  November  30,  1894,  relating  to  cheap  dwellings . 

French  Society  for  Promoting  Cheap  Dwellings,  work  ot..... . •-••• 

Friedrichsort,  Germany,  Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  model  small  houses  of. 


G. 

Gerhard  vom  Bath  Fund,  Cologne,  Germany,  modei  small  houses  of . 

German  People' 8  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany . - . 

Germany,  sanitary  laws  of . . 

Glasgow  Kyrle  Society,  rent  collecting  system  ot . 

Glasgow  Presbytery  Commission,  work  of . 

Glasgow,  Scotland — 

Burns’  homes  (model  lodging  houses) . 

death  rate  of,  in  1871  and  1892,  compared . 

mortality  of  children  under  5  years  in  (1855  -1890) . 

municipal  lodging  houses . 

municipal  model  dwellings ........... - •  •  -  -  . 

number  of  low  rental  tenements  in,  from  188o  to  . . 

results  of  expropriation  in . . . 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland. 

conditions  of  tenancy . .  . 

description  of  property . . 

earnings  of  tenants . . 

financial  statement . 

objects . 

H.  Ex.  354 - 29 


Page. 
229, 230 
230 
230 
417-436 
435, 436 

274 

272-274 

273 

273 


73 
412 
342,  343 
64 

271,  272 
274 
87 

166, 167 
165, 166 
37-47 
402-404 
384-387 
417-436 
433 
55-68 
62,  63 

65, 66 

63 
64,65 

64 
66,  67 

65 
05 


78 

78 

361 
36 1 
361 
361 


229 
228, 229 
229 
229 
228 
228 

173, 174 
63 

152- 155 
48-51 

283-288 

153- 155 
168 

379, 380 


393 
391, 392 
52 
167 
105, 107 

407-412 

74 

260-208 

420 

76 

404-407 

268-271 

73 

66,67 

265 

262-268 
265,  267 
264 
260 


450 


INDEX. 


Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland — Concluded.  Page. 

occupations  of  tenants . 265 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  265 

rents .  263,267 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  264 

vital  statistics .  263 

Goldnen  Hoke,  Leipsic,  Germany: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  296 

description .  295,296 

rents .  296 

Gothenburg  Company  for  the  Housing  of  Working  People,  Gothenburg,  Sweden: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  398 

description  of  property .  398 

rents . 398 

Gothenburg  Savings  Bank,  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  397 

description .  397 

Gothenburg,  Sweden— 

Carnegie,  D.,  and  Company .  398 

Gothenburg  Company  for'tke  Housing  of  Working  People .  398 

Gothenburg  Savings  Bank .  397 

Robert  Dickson  Fund .  315-317 

State  Railway .  315 

Workingmen's  Building  Society .  397 

Grand-Hornu  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company,  Mons,  Belgium,  model  small  houses  of: 

description .  370 

rents .  370 

Granges,  France,  D.  Walter-Seitz,  model  small  houses  of .  360 

Great  Britain— 

laws  of,  relating  to  expropriation .  55-62 

laws  of,  relating  to  housing  of  working  people . 156,157 

Guinness  Trust,  London,  England,  model  block  buildings  of: 

application  for  dwellings .  243 

conditions  of  tenancy .  242-244 

description .  239-246 

earnings  of  tenants .  242 

financial  statement .  242 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  242 

rents . 240 

vital  statistics . !.  241 

Guise,  France,  The  Familistbre .  274,275 


H. 

Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany,  Loest’s  Court .  309-313 

Hanover,  Germany,  Savings  and  Building  Society .  306-309 

Harrison  avenue  model  buildings,  Boston,  Massachusetts.  ( See  Boston  Cooperative  Building 
Company.) 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Havre,  France: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  345 

description  of  property .  345,346 

earnings  of  tenants .  346 

financial  statement. .  346 

occupations  of  tenants .  346 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  346 

rents . 345 

nealthfulness  of  block  buildings .  175, 176 

Healthy  Dwellings  Company,  Marseilles,  France: 

description  of  property .  277-279 

financial  statement .  278 

occupations  of  tenants .  279 

rents .  278 

Hill,  Octavia,  rent  collecting  system  of .  161-164 

House  accommodation,  relation  of  death  rate  to,  in  Scotland .  78.79 

Housing  of  the  poor,  rent  collecting  and  other  agencies  for  improving .  161-168 

Housing  of  tlie  working  classes  act  (Great  Britain),  1890,  abstract  of .  56-62 

Housing  of  working  people  in  the  Hnited  States  and  various  foreign  countries,  development 

of  interest  in .  17,18 

Housing  of  working  people,  laws  relating  to,  in — 

Austria. .  155,156 

Belgium .  133-152 

Franco .  152-155 

Great  Britain .  156, 157 

Housing  work  of — 

Berlin  Central  Institute  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  Working  People .  167, 168 

Edinburgh  Social  Dnion . .  166,167 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  326 

conditions  of  tenancy .  326 

description .  325-327 

earnings  of  tenants . 326 

financial  statement .  327 

occupations  of  tenants .  326 

rents .  325 

vital  statistics .  326 

Huddersfield,  England — 

model  lodging  houses .  415 

municipal  artisans’  dwellings .  336-339 


INDEX. 


451 


i. 


Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

vital  statistics . 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

nationality  of  tenants . 

rents . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

Improved  Dwellings  Company,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 

age  of  tenants  and  average  size  of  families  in  Riverside  buildings . 

conditions  of  tenancy . . . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

nationality  of  tenants  in  Tower  buildings . 

occupations  of  tenants  in  Riverside  and  Tower  buildings . 

reading  room  attendance  . 

rents . 

Improved  Industrial  Company,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  England: 

description  of  property . 

rents . 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  tenants . . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . . . 

vififtl  statistics  • 

Insanitary  conditions  in  New  York  city,  types  of  complaints  and  recommendations  regarding. 
Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinell©  and  Couillet,  Belgium,  model  small 

bouses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . . . 

earnings  of  tenants . . . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . - . - . - :•;••• . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  m  the  vicinity . 


Page. 
210,211 
207-211 
210 
209,  210 
210 
210 

209 

210 
209 

194, 195 
190-190 
194 

193 

194 

193 

194 

181 
183, 184 
177-180 
183 
182 

181, 182 
185 
180 

200 

260 

220.  221 
214-222 
217 

218-220 

220 

217 

216 

34-37 


367 

307 
366-368 

308 

368 
367 
307 


J. 


J  u venal  model  buildings,  Liverpool,  England.  (See  Municipal  Model  Buildings.) 


K. 


Krupp,  Friedrich,  Essen,  Germany,  lodging  houses  of. ...... 

Krupp,  Friedrich,  Essen,  Germany,  model  small  houses  of : 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . 

financial  statement . 

rents . . . v 

Kyrle  Society,  Glasgow,  Scotland,  rent  collecting  system  ol. 

L. 


Land,  effects  of  the  price  of,  upon  rents . . . .  .  .  . .......  v . - . 

Landsbere  on  the  Wart  a,  Germany,  Mutual  Building  Company . -  - . "  v ' 

Laroclm i  lrance  Parif, Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company, model  small  houses  of.. 

Law  of  August  9, 1889,  Belgian,  text  of . - . . 

Law  of  November  30, 1894,  French,  relating  to  cheap  dwellings . 

Laws  of,  relating  to  expropriation — 

Belgium . . 

France . 

Great  Britain . 

Laws  of,  relating  to  housing  of  working  people — 

Austria . . 

Belgium . . . 

France . - . _ 

Great  Britain . - . . 

Laws  relating  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses  m  New  XorK  . 

Le'creuzok  France,  M.  Schneider,  model  small  houses  of . 

Legislation,  English,  relating  to  lodging  houses .  . 

. 

Loipsic,  Germany-  . 

Goldnen  Hohe . -  -  - .  . 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings . 


386,  387 

385 
385,  386 
384-386 

385 

386 
167 


423.  424 
377, 378 

359 
149-152 
153-155 

67,  68 
08 
55-62 

155. 156 
133-152 
152-155 

150. 157 
27-34 
23-52 

360 
402-404 
425,  426 

392 

295, 296 
292-295 


452 


INDEX, 


Page. 

Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany,  Salomon  Fund,  model  block  buildings  of .  296-299 

Lens,  France,  Mining  Company  of  Lens,  model  small  houses  of .  358,359 

Lever  Brothers,  Birkenhead,  England,  profit  sharing  scheme  of .  339 

Lille  Real  Estate  Company,  Lille,  France : 

description  of  property .  360 

rents .  360 

Lillers,  France,  M.  Fanien,  model  small  houses  of .  361 

Liverpool,  England — 

lodging  houses . 415,416 

municii>al  model  buildings . 246-256 

number  of  persons  per  inhabited  house  in  (1851-1891) .  75 

results  of  expropriation  in .  65 

Lodging  houses — 

Burns’  homes,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  407-412 

definition  of .  27, 172 

English  legislation  relating  to .  402-404 

Gr  ass  Market  model,  Edinburgh,  Scotland .  412 

Liverpool,  England . 415,416 

London  county  council,  London,  England . 412-414 

model,  Baltimore,  Maryland .  401, 402 

model,  effects  of,  upon  overcrowding .  401 

model,  Huddersfield,  England .  415 

model,  provision  of,  in  Great  Britain  and  in  the  United  States .  401 

municipal,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  404-407 

Rowton  House,  London,  England . 414,415 

Lodgings,  number  of,  furnished  by  the  municipal  lodging  houses,  Glasgow,  Scotland,  during 

the  year  ending  May  31, 1893 .  406 

Lodgings,  prices  charged  for,  in- 

Burns’  homes,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  409-411 

Grass  Market  model  lodging  house,  Edinburgh,  Scotland .  412 

London  county  council  lodging  house,  Loudon,  England .  413 

model  lodging  house,  Baltimore,  Maryland .  402 

model  lodging  houses,  Huddersfield,  England .  415 

municipal  lodging  houses,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  405 

Rowton  House,  London,  England .  414 

Loest's  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  311 

description .  309-313 

earnings  of  tenants .  312 

financial  statement .  311 

occupations  of  tenants .  312 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  312 

rents .  311 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  312 

vital  statistics .  311 

London  county  council — 

lodging  house  of . 412-414 

plan  of,  for  housing  poor  people .  97 

regulations  of,  for  building  houses  for  poor  people  upon  its  own  land .  98-100 

requirements  of,  regarding  water-closets  and  drainage .  47 

London,  England — 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company .  222-226 

average  annual  death  rate  per  1,000  in,  by  ten-year  periods  (1841-1890) .  73 

block  buildings  in,  classification  of .  173 

death  rate  of  children  under  1  year  in  (1841-1890) .  76 

East  End  Dwellings  Company7 .  229,  230 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company .  228, 229 

Guinness  Trust .  239-246 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company . 214-222 

Metropolitan  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Industrious  Classes .  226-228 

Peabody  Donation  Fund .  231-238 

population  of  model  block  buildings  in .  173 

public  health  act  of  1891,  abstract  of .  40-47 

Rowton  House  (model  lodging  house) .  414, 415 

sanitary  authorities,  duties  of .  40-47 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company .  230,  231 

work  of  sanitary  aid  societies  in .  85-87 

Lowell,  Massachusetts,  Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  model  small  houses  of .  333-335 

Lyons,  France — 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company .  281-283 

The  Cottage .  346-348 


M. 

Manchester,  England — 

annual  death  rate  per  1,000  during  five  years  in  back-to-back  houses  in .  94 

plan  for  providing  t  hrough  ventilation  of  back-to-back  houses  in .  95 

Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester,  England: 

conditions  of  tenancy7 .  260 

description  of  property . 257-260 

financial  statement . 159 

rents .  2J9 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  260 

vital  statistics .  259 

Mansion  House  Council  on  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  London,  England,  object  and  work  of. .  85,86 

Marcinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium,  Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  model  small 
houses  of .  366-368 


INDEX. 


453 


“rditSsof  model  8n,a11  h0,,3es  of : 

description . . 

rents . . 

.  re“ts  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity."!"" . 

Marine^bervjce^offtheGerman  Empire,  Friedrichaort,  Germany,  model  email"  iiousea  "of . 

description . . . .!!*.!!".!  II*  . . 

earnings  of  tenants . . 

financial  statement .  ". . 

occupations  of  tenants . . . !!!!!.'!'.!!!!!!!! . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent. .  .  . . 

rents . . 

vital  statistics . ."*** . 

Marlborough  model  buildings,  London,  England! ‘  '(Set  improved  Industrie  'd  weriings  Com- 

pany.) 

Marseilles,  France,  Healthy  Dwellings  Company . 

Medical  Association  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen, ‘Denmark,  model  smaii  houses  of  •’ . 

description . 

rents . !!.!". !!!!  . 

Menier,  M.,  Noisiel,  France,  model  small  houses  of  : 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . .!!!!!!!!!."!!."."."! . 

earnings  of  tenants . . .".!!.".!".!.!. . 

per  cent  of  earniugs  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . !!."!!!!!!!!".".!!"!!! 

rents . 


Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  model  small  houses  of  : . 

conditions  of  tenancy . ‘ . 

description . !!..*.!!."!!!."!!!."!!!!!!!!."!"!.* 

financial  statement . • . ! _ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!!!***" 

per  cent  of  earniugs  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

rents . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . ’.!!!! 

Metropolitan  Association  lor  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Industrious  Classes,  London, 
England  : 


Page. 
369 
368, 369 
368 
368 

380 
379, 380 
380 
380 
380 
380 

379 

380 


277-279 

396 

396 

353 

351-353 

352 

352 

352 

335 

333-335 

331,335 

335 

334 

335 


conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  of  property . 

financial  statement . 

rents . 

vital  statistics . 

Mettlach,  Germany,  Villeroy  and  Boch,  model  small  houses  of . 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany  : 

description . 

earnings  of  teuants . 

financial  statement . . 

occupations  of  tenants . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity. 

vital  statistics . 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  France,  model  small  houses  of  : 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . 

earnings  of  tenants . . 

rents . ._ . . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity. 
Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France,  model  small  houses  of  : 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description  . . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

rents . - . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity 
Model  housing — 

factors  in,  necessary  to  secure  favorable  economic  returns . 

in  France,  beginning  of . 

in  general . 

Mons,  Belgium — 

Cite  Hoyaux . . . 

Grand-Hornu  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company . 

Mortality — 

in  Berlin,  Germany,  statistics  of . 

in  New  York  city,  statistics  of  (1875-1891) . - . . 

of  children  under  5  years  in  Glasgow,  Scotland  (1835—1890) . 

Mulkouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Mulhouse,  Germany  : 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

description  of  property . . . . 

financial  statement . 

Miinchen-Gladbach,  German)',  Cooperative  Building  Company . 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England: 

conditions  of  tenancy . 

description . 

earnings  of  tenants . 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  tenants . . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity.. 


227,  228 
226-228 
227 
227 
227 
389-391 

292-295 

295 

294 

295 
294 

293,  294 
294 
294 

357 
356,  357 
357 
357 
357 

359 
358,  359 
359 
359 
359 

432 
173, 174 
171-176 

370 

370 


75, 76 
76 
76 

384 
382, 383 
383 
382 
375-377 

339 

330-339 

339 

338 

339 
339 
338 
337 


454 


INDEX. 


Municipal  Model  buildings,  Liverpool,  England  :  Pag* 

conditions  of  tenancy .  254 

description . 24G-256 

earnings  of  tenants .  254 

financial  statement .  254 

occupations  of  tenants .  254,255 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  255 

rents .  251,254 

vital  statistics . 251 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg,  Germany  : 

conditions  of  tenancy .  393 

description . 393 

earnings  of  tenants .  393 

rents .  393 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  393 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland  : 

conditions  of  tenancy .  269,  270 

description .  268- 171 

earnings  of  tenants .  270 

financial  statement .  269 

occupations  of  tenants .  270 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  271 

rents . 269 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany  : 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 378 

conditions  of  tenancy .  378 

description  of  property .  377,373 

earnings  of  tenants .  378 

financial  statement .  378 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  378 

rents .  378 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  378 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss,  Germany  : 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  3S1 

conditions  of  tenancy .  381 

description  of  property .  381 

earnings  of  tenants .  381. 

occupations  of  tennants .  381 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  381 

rents .  381 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  381 

N. 

Net  profits  and  dividends  of  model  housing  companies,  per  cent  of .  429-431 

Neuss,  Germany,  Mutual  Building  Company .  381 

Neviges,  Germany,  D.  Peters  and  Company,  model  small  bouses  of .  387-389 

New  Bedford,  Massachusetts,  Howland  Mills  Corporation,  model  small  bouses  of .  325-327 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  England — 

Improved  Industrial  Company .  200 

rosults  of  expropriation  in .  65 

New  York  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  object  and  work  of .  89 

New  York  city— 

board  of  health  of,  composition  and  powers  of .  24-26 

complaints  and  recommendations  regarding  insanitary  conditions  in,  types  of .  34-37 

death  rate  per  1,000  in  (1866-1891) .  72 

Improved  Dwellings  Association .  190-196 

inspections  and  reinspections  made  in  1890  and  1891  by  sanitary  inspectors  in,  compared .  37 

laws  relat  ing  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses  in .  27-34 

plans  of  tenement  houses  in .  128, 129 

police  department  of,  duties  of,  in  connection  with  hoard  of  health .  25 

population,  deaths,  and  death  rates  in  certain  localities  in .  77 

sanitary  inspectors  of,  duties  of .  26 

sanitary  laws  of .  24-37 

sanitary  police  force,  duties  of .  25,  26 

sanitary  superintendent  of,  qualifications,  duties,  and  powers  of .  24 

statistics  of  mortality  in  (1875-1891) .  76 

Tenement  House  Building  Company .  196-200 

tenement  houses  in,  number  of,  in  1891 .  72 

tenement  houses  in,  plans  of .  128, 129 

tenement  houses  in,  sanitary  condition  of,  in  1867 .  72 

work  of  sanitary  aid  societies  in .  88, 89 

Noisiel,  France,  M.  Menier,  model  small  houses  of .  351-353 

Northern  Railway,  Bourget,  France,  model  small  houses  of: 

description .  359,360 

rents .  360 

North  German  Jute  Spinning  and  Weaving  Factory,  Schiffbek,  near  Hamburg,  Germany, 
mode)  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  391 

description .  391 

rents .  391 

O. 

Objections  to  expropriation .  62.63 

Occupations  of  tenants  in  model  block  buildings: 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  224 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York . . .  189 


INDEX. 


455 


Occupations  of  tenants  in  model  block  buildings— Concluded. 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany . . . 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts . 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England . 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 

Hoallhy  Dwellings  Company,  Marseilles,  France . 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts . 

Improved  Dwellings  Company,  Brooklyn,  New  York . 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England . 

Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany . 

Moyer’s  Mode)  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany . 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool,  England . 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 

Peabody  Donation  Fund.  London,  England . 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France . 

Rosemount  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  forW  orking  People,  Edinburgh,  Scotland 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany . 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany . 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany . 

Occupations  of  tenants  in  model  small  houses: 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  Franco . 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium . 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium . 

Cit6  Hoyaux,  Mons,  Belgium . 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Havre,  France . 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford'.  Massachusetts . 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany . 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England . 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Nenss,  Germany . 

Peters,  D.,  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany . 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France . 

Royal  Prussian  State  Railway,  Leinhausen,  Hanover,  Germany . 

One-room  tenements,  ethical  features  of . . 


Page. 

290 

206 
229 
265 
279 
210 
131, 182 
218-220 
312 
295 
254,  255 
270 
235 
276 
272 
306 
308 

281-286 

355 

364 

365 
370 
346 
326 

380 
339 

381 
389 
350 
392 
433 


O  v  orcrowding — 

effects  of  model  lodging  houses  upon. . 
in  lodging  houses,  Liverpool,  England 
relation  of,  to  death  rates . 


401 
416 
76-79,  95 


P. 


Paine,  Robert  Treat,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 

description .  8,10 

Paris,  France— 

Discount  Bank  of . 0_. 

Philanthropic  Society  of . . . *•--•••- .  Z.A 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy-Auteuil... . d4’>d44 

Paris,  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  Laroche,  France,  model  small  houses  of : 

conditions  of  tenancy .  88Q 

description .  359 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  359 

Peabodv  Donation  Fund,  London,  England,  model  block  buildings  of: 

application  for  dwellings .  J,9n6 

conditions  of  tenancy .  234-238 

description .  234~238 

earnings  of  tenants . 931 

financial  statement . 

occupations  of  tenants . . . ; .  9-u 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  23^ 

rents  compared  witli  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . y7y  m 

Peabodv  Donation  Fund,  London,  England,  operations  of  (1891)  . . . fig,  ££ 

Per  cent  of  dividends  and  net  profits  of  model  housing  companies  . 429-431 

Peters,  D„  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany,  model  small  houses  ot .  aRR 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  3gg 

conditions  of  tenancy .  337-389 

description . . . . iiii  389 

earnings  of  tenants .  389 

occupations  of  tenants . . . - . .  .  389 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  ’  ’ ’ .  3gg 

rents  "compared  with  "rontsfor"  ^i^^^^commodation  in  tho  vicinity . 

Philanthropic  .Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  F  ranee,  model  block  buildin0s  .  276,  277 

description . 276 

earnings  of  tenants — . . - .  __  276 

financial  statement . 276 

occupations  of  tenants . . . . . - . ’ .  276 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  tor  rent . 276 

Pilrig  Model  Dwellings,  Edinburgh,  Scotland :  .  342,  343 

description .  *.!..!!!.”-. .  343 

financial  statement . . 343 

rents  . .  •  •••••.•• .  . 128, 129 

.  25 


456 


INDEX. 


Population —  1  a=e- 

of  model  block  buildings  in  London,  England .  173 

of  tenement  houses  in  Boston,  Massachusetts .  421 

per  cent  of,  living  in  different  sized  tenements  in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland .  78 

Population,  deaths,  ana  death  rates  in  oertain  localities  in  New  York  city .  77 

Presbytery  Commission,  Glasgow,  Scotland,  work  of .  165,  i  07 

Profit  sharing  scheme  of  Lever  Brothers,  Birkenhead,  England .  339 

Proposed  Tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach,  Berlin,  Germany: 

description .  292 

rents .  292 

Prussian  State  Coal  Mines,  Saarbriicken,  Germany,  provisions  of,  for  housing  workmen .  392,  393 

Public  bodies,  intervention  of .  133-157 

Public  health  (London)  act  of  1891,  abstract  of .  40-47 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois- 

financial  statement  of  the  Lean  and  Savings  Bank  of . 333 

nativity  of  employees  of .  332 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  332 

description .  328-333 

earnings  of  tenants .  331,332 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  331,  332 

rents .  331 

vital  statistics .  332 


ft. 


Rapid  transit,  the  influence  of,  upon  the  housing  problem . 

Recommendations  and  complaints  regarding  insanitary  conditions  in  New  York  city,  types  of. 

Regulations,  building . 

Rent  collecting  and  other  agencies  for  improving  the  housing  of  the  poor . 

Rent  collecting  system  of— 

Edinburgh  Social  Union . 

Glasgow  Eyrie  Society . 

OctaviaHill . 

Rent,  maximum  per  cent  of  earnings  to  be  paid  for . 

Rent,  per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for,  in  model  block  buildings: 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York . 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany . 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts . 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany . 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 

Guinness  Trust,  London,  England . 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts . 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England . 

Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany . 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany . 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool,  England . 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 

Peabody  Donation  Eund,  London,  England . 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Paris,  France . 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany . 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany . 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany . 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France . 

Rent,  per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for,  in  model  small  houses : 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France . 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium . 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Havre,  France . 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium . 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedrichsort,  Germany . 

Menier,  M.,  Noisiel,  France . 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts . 

Municipal  Artisans’ Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England . 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany . 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Nenss,  Germany . 

Peters,  D.,  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany . 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois . 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland . 

Vieille-Montagne  Company,  Ch6n6e,  Belgium . 

Warren,  S.  D.,  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine . 

Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut . 

Rents— 


425 

34-37 

93-130 

161-168 

165, 166 
167 
161-164 
422 

190 

290 

205 

302 

265 

242 

210 

220 

312 

294 

255 

271 

234 

276 

306 

298 

308 

281 

355 

363 

346 

368 

380 
352 
335 
339 
378 

381 
389 

331, 332 
342 
366 
323 
328 


effect  of  increased  cost  of  building  upon .  427 

effect  of  price  of  land  upon .  423,  424 

effect  of  taxes  upon .  427,  428 

monthly,  charged  for  model,  ticketed,  and  uninhabitable  tenements  in  Glasgow .  420 

relation  of,  to  earnings  in  various  cities .  422,  423 

weekly,  per  room  in  houses  ordered  vacated  by  the  Boston  Board  of  Health  in  February, 

1892 . .  *426 

weekly,  per  room  in  model  tenement  buildings  in  Boslon  and  in  London,  compared .  420 

weokly,  per  room  in  tenements  of  the  Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company .  419 

Rents  of  model  block  buildings: 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Laborers'  Dwellings,  Amsterdam,  Holland .  314 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  223,226 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  189 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany .  289 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  203, 206, 419 


INDEX. 


457 


Rente  of  model  block  buildings — Concluded.  Page. 

Bunker  Hill  Terraces,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  213 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Lyons,  France . .  983 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany . 301 

East  End  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  .  230 

Edinburgh  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Poor,  Edi  nbnrgh Scotland!  273 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England _  2^8 

Glasgow  "Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 2C3  267 

Goldnen  Hoke,  Leipsic,  Germany .  ’293 

Guinness  Trust,  London  England . 210 

Healthy  Dwellings  Company,  Marseilles,  Fiance . .""!!”!!!"!!*!” .  978 

Lu proved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts . !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!”!!!  209 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  oity . ^93 

Improved  Dwellings  Company,  Brooklyn,  New  York . ISO 

Improved  Industrial  Company,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  England . 260 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England . '.Y.'.'.'.Y.  217 

Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany . 311 

Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester,  England . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  259 

Metropolitan  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Industrious  Classes', 

London,  England .  227 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany .  293,  294 

Municipal  Model  Buildings,  Liverpool,  England . 25L  254 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  '  2G9 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London,  England . 234 

Philanthropic  Society  of  Paris,  Pari?,  France . 276 

Proposed  Tenements  of  Valentin  Weisbach,  Berlin,  Germany .  292 

Robert  Dickson  Fund,  Gothenburg,  Sweden . ' .  315-317 

Rosemount  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  for  Working  People,  Edinburgh,  Scot¬ 
land  .  272 

Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden .  3N 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany .  305 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany .  298 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany .  307 

Society  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes,  Amsterdam,  Holland .  313 

Society  for  the  Improvement  of  Tenements,  Berlin,  Germany .  291 

State  Railway,  Gothenburg,  Sweden .  315 

Stockholm  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden .  315 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany .  284-286,  288 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  231 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France .  280 

Tenement  House  Building  Company,  New  York  city .  198 

The  Familist^re,  Guise,  France .  275 

Well  Court  Modol  Tenements,  Edinburgh,  Scotland .  274 

Rents  of  model  block  buildings  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the 
vicinity : 

Amsterdam  Association  for  Building  Laborers’  Dwellings,  Amsterdam,  Holland .  314 

Artisans’,  Laborers’  and  General  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England .  226 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  190 

Berlin  Mutual  Building  Company,  Berlin,  Germany .  290 

Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Lyons,  France .  283 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany .  302 

Four  Per  Cent  Industrial  Dwellings  Company,  Loudon,  England .  228 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland .  264 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston,  Massachusetts .  210 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  New  York  city .  194 

Loest’s  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany .  312 

Manchester  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester,  England .  260 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leipsic,  Germany .  294 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London,  England .  234 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany .  305 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany .  298 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany .  308 

Tenement  House  Building  Company,  New  York  city .  199 

Rents  of  model  small  houses : 

Barmen  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Barmen,  Germany . 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France .  355 

Blanzy  Mining  Company,  Blanzy,  France . . .  358 

Bois-du-Luc  Mining  Company,  Bois-du-Luo,  Belgium . .  371 

Brussels  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Brussels,  Belgium .  369 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium .  3b.i 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium .  ™ 

Carnegie,  D.,aud  Company,  Gothenburg,  Sweden .  3y» 

Cit6  Hoyaux,  Mons,  Belgium . . . 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinclien-Gladbach,  Germany . 

Gothenburg  Company  for  the  Housing  of  Working  People,  Gothenburg,  Sweden .  3  8 

Grand-Hornn  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company,  Mons,  Belgium .  *><u 

Havre  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company.  Havre,  France .  „ 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts.... . .  3Z0 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium .  do< 

Krupp,  Friedrich,  Essen,  Germany .  „rn 

Lille  Real  Estate  Company,  Lille,  France.  -  -  -  •  . ■••••: .  ofis 

Mariomont  Mining  Company,  Mariemont  and  Bascoup,  Belgium .  „7J, 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Friedricksort,  Germany . 

Medical  Association  of  Denmark,  Copenhagen,  Denmark . 

Menier,  M.,  Noisiel,  Franco . •  - - . :*•••::* .  .  oqT 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts . 


458  INDEX. 

Rents  of  model  small  houses— Concluded.  Page. 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  France . . . . . . .  357 

Mining  Company  of  Lens.  Lens,  France .  359 

Mulhouse  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Mulliouse,  Germany .  382 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England .  338 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg,  Germany .  393 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany .  378 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss,  Germany .  381 

Northern  Railway,  Bourget,  France .  360 

North  German  Jute  Spinning  and  Weaving  Factory,  ScliifFbek,  near  Hamburg,  Ger¬ 
many  .  391 

Paris,  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  Laroche,  France .  359 

Peters,  D„  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany .  388 

Pilrig  Model  Dwellings,  Edinburgh,  Scotland .  343 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company,  Pullman,  Illinois .  331 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France .  348 

Royal  Prussian  State  Railway,  Leinhausen,  Hanover,  Germany .  392 

Saint-Gobain  Manufacturing  Company,  Saiut-Gobain,  France .  356 

Schneider,  M.,  Le  Creuzot,  France .  360 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland .  341 

Solvay  and  Company,  Varangeville-Dombasle,  France .  350 

Verviers  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Verviers,  Belgium .  370 

Vieille-Montagne  Company  Ch6n6e,  Belgium .  366 

Walter-Seitz,  D.,  Granges,  France .  300 

Warren,  S.  D.,  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine .  323 

Willimantic  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut .  327 

Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Gothenburg,  Sweden .  397 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy-Auteuil,  Paris,  France .  344 

Rents  of  model  small  houses  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity: 

Barmen  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Barmen,  Germany .  374 

Belfort  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Belfort,  France .  355 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Antwerp,  Belgium .  363 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium .  305 

Cooperative  Building  Company,  Miinchen-Gladbach,  Germany .  376 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufacturing  Company,  Marcinelle  and  Couillet,  Belgium .  3G7 

Mariemont  Mining  Company,  Mariemont  and  Bascoup,  Belgium .  308 

Merrimac  Manufacturing  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts .  335 

Mining  Company  of  Anzin,  Anzin,  Franco .  357 

Mining  Company  of  Lens,  Lens,  France .  359 

Municipal  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Huddersfield,  England .  337 

Municipal  Model  Dwellings,  Duisburg,  Germany .  393 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Landsberg  on  the  Warta,  Germany . .  378 

Mutual  Building  Company,  Neuss,  Germany .  381 

Paris,  Lyons  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  Laroche,  France .  359 

Peters,  D.,  and  Company,  Neviges,  Germany .  388 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings'  Company,  Rouen,  France .  348 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie  Scotland .  341 

Solvay  and  Company,  Yarang6ville-Dombasle,  France .  350 

Yiller'oy  and  Boch,  Mettlach,  Germany .  390 

Walter-Seitz,  D.,  Granges,  France .  360 

Warren,  S.  D.,  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine .  322 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy-Auteuil,  Paris,  France .  344 

Results  of  sanitary  reform . 71-79 

Riverside  buildings,  Brooklyn,  New  York.  ( Sec  Improved  Dwellings  Company.) 

Robert  Dickson  Fund,  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  model  block  buildings  of: 

description .  315-317 

financial  statement .  316 

rents .  315-317 

Rosemount.  Association  for  Providing  Dwellings  for  Working  People,  Edinburgh,  Scotland: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  272 

description  of  property .  271, 272 

earnings  of  tenants .  272 

financial  statement .  272 

occupations  of  tenants .  272 

rents .  272 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  Franco: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  348 

conditions  of  tenancy .  349 

description  of  property .  348,349 

earnings  of  tenants .  348.  350 

financial  statement .  348,  349 

occupations  of  tenants .  350 

rents .  348 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  348 

vital  statistics .  349 

Rouen,  France,  Tenement  Dwellings  Company .  279-281 

Rowton  House  (model  lodging  house),  London,  England .  414,416 

Royal  Prussian  State  Railway,  Leinhausen,  Hanover,  Germany,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  392 

description .  392 

earnings  of  tenants .  392 

occupations  of  tenants .  392 

rents . 392 

Rufus  Ellis  Memorial  building.  Boston,  Massachusetts.  (Sec  Improved  Dwellings  Association.) 


INDEX. 


459 


s. 

Page. 

Saarbrilcken,  Germany,  Prussian  State  Coal  Mines,  provisions  of,  for  housing  workmen .  392,393 

Saint  Erik  Building  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden : 

description  or  property .  314 

financial  statement .  314 

rents .  314 

Saint-Gobain  Manufacturing  Company,  Saint-Gobain,  France,  model  small  houses  of: 

description .  355,356 

rents .  356 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany,  model  block  buildings  of: 

description .  303-306 

earnings  of  tenants .  306 

financial  statement .  305 

occupations  of  tenants .  306 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  306 

rents .  305 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  305 

vital  statistics .  305 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Reudnitz,  Germany,  model  block  buildings  of: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  298 

description .  296-299 

financial  statement .  298 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  298 

rents .  298 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  298 

vital  statistics .  298 

Sanitary  aid  societies,  work  of,  in — 

Boston,  Massachusetts .  88 

Edinburgh,  Scotland .  _  87 

London,  England .  85-87 

New  York  city .  88  89 

Sanitary  and  social  conditions  resulting  from  bad  housing .  434, 435 

Sanitary  authorities,  London  England,  duties  of .  40-47 

Sanitary  condition  of  New  York  city  tenement  houses  in  1867 .  72 

Sanitary  condition  of  tenements  in  tenement  houses  in  Boston,  Massachusetts .  421 

Sanitary  inspectors  of  New  York  city,  duties  of .  26 

Sanitary  laws  of—  *  „ 

Belgium . 51,52 

England .  87-47 

France . 

Germany . 

New  York  city . 24-37 

Sanitary  police  force  of  New  York  city,  duties  of .  25, 26 

Sanitary  reform,  results  of . . . . . . -  - . . .  '1-79 

Sanitary  superintendent  of  New  York  city,  qualifications,  dnties,  and  powers  of . .  24 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  “08 

description  of  property .  duo 

earnings  of  tenants . - .  ““5 

financial  statement . . . 

occupations  of  tenants . . . 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . . . . - 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  simiiar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  308 

vital  statisti  . . -  -  . .  -  - - - - -  ' 

Schiffbek,  near  Hamburg,  Germany,  North  German  Jute  Spinning  and  Weaving  Factory, 

model  small  houses  of . - . 

Schneider,  M.,  Le  Creuzot,  France,  model  small  houses  of: 

description . . 

Smieton,  James,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland,  model  small  houses  of:  aj1  ,u2 

conditions  of  tenancy .  340I342 

description . . . .’’I".’!.."”".!."...  341, 342 

financial  statement . 349, 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 

rents . . . . -  -  - . . .  •■•••••  J "  17  “ .  31 1 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

vital  statistics . . . - *. . 434  43s 

Social  and  sanitary  conditions  resulting  from  bad  housing .  33_89 

Society  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes,  Amsterdam,  Holland.  313 

description  of  property . 313 

rents . . 

Society  for  t.he  Improvement  of  Tenements,  Berlin,  Germany:  291 

description  of  property . 291 

financial  statement . 291 

Solvay  and  Company,  Varang6viile-Dombasle,  France,  model  small  houses  of .  gg^ 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 351 

conditions  of  tenancy . 350,351 

description . 351 

financial  statement . 350 

rents  "compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity . 

State  Railway,  Gothenburg,  Sweden,  model  block  buildings  of.  315 

description .  315 

rents . . 


460 


INDEX 


Stockholm  Laborers’  Dwellings  Company,  Stockholm,  Sweden:  Page. 

description  of  property .  314, 315 

rents .  315 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  Saint  Erik  Building  Company .  814 

T. 

Taxes,  effect  of,  upon  rents .  427, 428 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Erankfort  on  the  Main,  Germany: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  283, 284 

description  of  property .  283-288 

earnings  of  tenants .  284-288 

linancial  statement .  283 

occupations  of  tenants .  284-286 

rents .  284-286, 288 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  London,  England: 

description  of  property .  230, 231 

financial  statement .  236 

rents .  231 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  281 

description  of  property .  279-281 

financial  statement .  280, 281 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  281 

rents .  280 

vital  statistics .  280 

Tenement  House  Building  Company,  Kew  York  city: 

conditions  of  tenancy .  199,200 

description  of  property .  196-200 

financial  statement .  200 

nationality  of  tenants .  199 

rents .  198 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  198 

vital  statistics .  198 

Tenement  house,  definition  of .  27 

Tenement  houses,  New  York  city — 

number  of,  in  1891 .  72 

plans  of .  128,129 

sanitary  condition  of,  in  1867  .  72 

Tenements — 

different  sized,  average  size  of  families  living  in,  in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland..  78 

different  sized,  per  cent  of  population  living  in,  in  eight  principal  towns  of  Scotland...  78 

low  rental,  number  of,  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  from  1885  to  1891 .  73 

one-room,  ethical  features  of .  433 

sanitary  condition  of,  in  tenement  houses  in  Boston,  Massachusetts .  421 

ticketed,  definition  of .  73, 74 

ticketed,  statistics  of . 74 

The  Cottage,  Lyons,  France : 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  347, 348 

description .  346,347 

earnings  of  tenants .  347 

The  Famili.-.t6re,  Guise,  France: 

description .  274,275 

rents .  276 

Ticketed  tenements — 

definition .  73,74 

statistics  of .  74 

Transportation,  cost  of,  to  workingmen,  in  various  cities .  427 


Y. 


Van  Marken  Model  Dwellings,  Delft,  Holland .  396, 397 

Varangbville-Dombasle,  France,  Solvay  and  Company,  model  small  houses  of .  350,351 

Verviers  Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Verviers.  Belgium: 

description  of  property .  370 

rents .  370 

Victoria  Square  Artisans’  Dwellings,  Liverpool,  England.  (See  Municipal  Model  Buildings.) 
Yieille-Montagne  Company,  ClffnOe,  Belgium,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship . 366 

conditions  of  tenancy .  366 

description .  866 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . . .  366 

rents .  366 

Villeroy  and  Bocli,  Mettlach,  Germany,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  390 

conditions  of  tenancy .  390 

description .  389-891 

earnings  of  tenants . 390 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  390 

Vital  statistics  of  model  block  buildings: 

Astral  Apartments,  Brooklyn,  New  York .  189 

Boston  Cooperative  Building  Company,  Boston.  Massachusetts .  203 

Cooperative  Building  Association,  Dresden,  Germany .  301 

Glasgow  Workmen’s  Dwellings  Company,  Glasgow,  Scotland . 2G3 

Guinness  Trust,  London,  England . 241 

Improved  Dwellings  Association,  Boston, Massachusetts . . . 209 

Improved  Industrial  Dwellings  Company.  London,  England.............................  216 

Loest's  Court,  Halle  on  the  Saale,  Germany . 811 

Manchester  Laborer's  Dwellings  Company,  Manchester,  England........................  153 


INDEX. 


461 


Vital  statistics  of  model  block  buildings— Concluded 

Metropolitan  Association  for  Improving  the  Dwellings  of  the  Industrious  Classes 

don,  England . 

Meyer’s  Model  Tenement  Buildings,  Leinsie,  Germany .......... 

Municipal  Model  Buildings, Liverpool,  England . I . . 

Peabody  Donation  Fund,  London,  England . ] .  . 

Saint  John’s  Society,  Dresden,  Germany . . 

Salomon  Fund,  Leipsic-Rcuduitz,  Germany .  . 

Savings  and  Building  Society,  Hanover,  Germany . . 

Tenement  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France . ’ "  ”  j . 

Tenement  House  Building  Company, Hew  York  city . . 

Vital  statistics  of  model  small  houses : 

Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  Wavre,  Belgium . 

Howland  Mills  Corporation,  Hew  Bedford.  Massachusetts  . 

Marine  Service  of  the  German  Empire,  Fried  rich  sort,  Germany .  ' ' . 

Pullman’s  Palace  Car  Company, Pullman,  Illinois . 

Rouen  Cheap  Dwellings  Company,  Rouen,  France . 

Smieton,  Janies,  and  Sons,  Carnoustie,  Scotland . 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy  -Auteuil.  Paris.  Franco 


Page. 

,  Lon- 

.  227 

.  294 

.  251 

..  175,176,257 

.  305 

.  298 

.  307 

.  280 

.  198 

.  365 

.  326 

.  380 

.  332 

.  349 

.  342 

.  344 


W. 

Wages.  (See  Earnings.) 

Walter-Seitz,  D.,  Granges,  France,  model  small  houses  of; 

description .  3(50 

rents .  300 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  tho vicinity .  360 

Warren,  S.  D.,  and  Company,  Cumberland  Mills,  Maine,  model  small  houses  of: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  323  304 

description .  121-324 

earnings  of  tenants .  323 

nationality  of  tenants .  324 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent . 323 

rents .  323 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  322 

Water-closets  and  drainage,  requirements  of  London  county  council  regarding .  47 

Wavre,  Belgium,  Bureau  of  Public  Relief,  model  small  houses  of .  364,  365 

Well  Court  Model  Tenements,  Edinburgh,  Scotland: 

description .  274 

rents .  274 

Willimantio  Linen  Company,  Willimantic,  Connecticut,  model  small  houses  of: 

description .  327,  328 

per  cent  of  earnings  of  tenants  paid  for  rent .  328 

rents .  327 

Workingmen,  cost  of  transportation  to,  in  various  cities .  427 

Workingmen  s  Building  Society,  Copenhagen,  Denmark: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  394 

description  or  property .  394-396 

earnings  of  tenants . 395 

occupations  of  those  who  have  purchased  houses .  395 

Workingmen’s  Building  Society,  Gothenburg,  Sweden : 

description  of  property .  397 

rents .  397 

Workingmen’s  Dwellings  Company  of  Passy- Auteuil,  Finis.  France: 

conditions  of  proprietorship .  344 

conditions  of  tenancy .  344 

description  of  property .  343,  344 

rents .  344 

rents  compared  with  rents  for  similar  accommodation  in  the  vicinity .  344 

vital  statistics . 344 

Workingmen’s  trains,  legislation  relating  to . . .  425, 426 

Working  people,  laws  relating  to  housing  of,  in- 

Austria .  155, 156 

Belgium .  133-152 

France . 152-155 

Great  Britain .  156. 157 


o 


V 


